Why Trust Science?

by Naomi Oreskes

  oceanography, 151, 216, 266n136

  opioid abuse, 123

  Oppenheimer, J. Robert, 171–72

  Oreskes, Naomi: Edenhofer and, 192–200, 223–28; Kowarsch and, 192–200, 223–28; Krosnick and, 202, 211, 228–44, 265n106; Lange and, 181–86, 221–23; Lindee and, 173–74, 177–79, 215–21; Macedo and, 2–13; Merchants of Doubt and, 13, 130, 153, 224, 245–46, 292n44

  Origin of Continents and Oceans (Wegener), 82–83

  Origin of Species (Darwin), 31

  Outside magazine, 250–55

  Oxford Eugenics Society, 97

  oxybenzone, 250, 294n10, 294n13

  Papal Encyclical on Climate Change, 228

  Paris Agreement, 287n3

  Pascal, Blaise, 36

  Pascal’s Wager: birth control and, 104–17; eugenics and, 140–41; existence of God and, 197; experts and, 141–43; falsehoods and, 142; Kuhn and, 141; Limited Energy Theory and, 140–41; policy assessments and, 193–97; stakes of error and, 7

  Passing of the Great Race, The (Grant), 91–92

  patients: AIDS crisis and, 275n113; birth control and, 104, 108–11, 114–15, 117, 250; dental floss and, 122–25; depression and, 104, 108–11, 114–15, 117; eugenics and, 88, 275n113; information of, 6, 61, 122, 130–31, 135; self-reporting and, 108, 130, 275n113

  Pauling, Linus, 174, 284n1

  Pearson, Karl, 102

  peer review: consensus and, 130–31; empiricism and, 32; epistemologies and, 53, 58; experts and, 7, 9, 182, 221, 247, 266n136; journals and, 3, 7, 9, 32, 53, 58, 66, 75, 130–31, 140, 145–46, 182, 221, 237, 240–41, 247, 252, 266n136, 293n55; reliable knowledge and, 130–31; revisions and, 247

  Pence, Mike, 16

  people of color, 51, 53, 61, 91, 98, 273n85

  performances, 71, 268n5, 268n7

  periodontal disease, 123, 125–26

  pertussis, 16

  pesticides, 66, 224, 239, 245

  petroleum industry: air pollution and, 194; climate change and, 4, 17–18, 63, 65, 67, 142, 225; environmentalism and, 239; greenhouse gases and, 65; misinformation and, 1, 67; paid studies and, 210, 213, 240–41; political pressure by, 17; reliable knowledge and, 129–30; Trump and, 194; truth and, 4

  p-hacking, 207, 229

  philosophy: absolutism and, 46, 48; Bacon and, 22, 33; Comte and, 20–25, 29, 42, 48, 64, 182, 259n25; Descartes and, 29, 183; Dewey and, 10, 197–99; Douglas and, 145; Duhem and, 4, 32–39, 48, 190, 260n40, 260n47, 261n58; epistemologies and, 54–55, 164, 167, 171–72; feminist, 4, 31, 49–57, 79, 109, 136, 144, 175–76, 247, 259n33, 263n89, 263n91, 264n92, 264n100, 273n78, 279n192; Feyerabend and, 46–48, 51; Harding and, 50–54, 144, 263n89, 263n91, 264n92; Hume and, 22, 25, 182; incommensurability and, 10, 40–41, 43, 186, 190; induction and, 25–27, 34, 74, 82–84, 182, 184–85, 190; Kuhn and, 4, 10, 32, 39–43, 141, 186–87, 261n65, 261n66, 261n69; Lange and, 9; Latour and, 23, 45, 48–49, 70–71, 247, 259n24, 268n7; limitations of, 255; Longino and, 4, 31, 50–55, 57, 247, 259n33, 263n89, 264n100; Marx and, 20, 28–29; nature of understanding and, 2–3; observation and, 3; Popper and, 3, 26–29, 40, 42, 46–48, 72, 259n31, 259n33; and present and future of science, 202; Quine and, 4, 25, 32, 37–39, 41, 43, 190, 261n58; relativism and, 41, 46, 52, 263n89, 287n5; science studies and, 19; scientific method and, 2–3, 29, 46, 55, 197, 211, 276n137; teleology and, 20–21, 23; use of mechanism and, 276n137

  plaque, 120, 122–23, 125, 277n162

  plate tectonics, 39, 69–70, 74, 81, 86, 173, 280n203

  Plato, 249

  PLOS One journal, 207

  polar vortex, 1

  policy assessments: consensus and, 10, 192; creating uncertainty and, 132–33; Dewey and, 197–99; diversity and, 195, 200, 223–24; economic issues and, 191–93, 199; environmentalism and, 225; ethics and, 193, 196–200; EU studies and, 195; evidence and, 192, 195, 226; experience and, 198; experiments and, 198; experts and, 192–96, 200, 224; hypotheses and, 195–99; ineffective decisions on, 196; objectivity and, 192, 196–97; Pascal’s Wager and, 193–97; scientific method and, 197; skepticism and, 192–93, 287n5; social costs of carbon (SCC) and, 191–92; technology and, 193, 195; Trump and, 191–92, 194; values and, 147, 192–93, 196–201

  Pollard, Ernest, 170–72, 285n13

  Polynesians, 62

  Pope Francis, 64, 157–58, 228

  Pope Pius XI, 273n78

  Popper, Karl, 3, 26–29, 40, 42, 46–48, 72, 244, 259n31, 259n33

  positive knowledge: Comte and, 20–23; doctrine and, 20; economic issues and, 263n87; honor societies and, 19; moral issues and, 21; observation and, 21–23; religion and, 20–23; scientific method and, 20; truth and, 21, 249

  positivism, 20–30, 46, 259n24, 259n26

  Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research, 10

  Poynter.org, 119

  pragmatism, 10, 197–98

  Princeton University, 171–72, 222

  Principia Mathematica (Newton), 31, 51, 264n92

  Probstein, Ronald F., 172

  Proctor, Robert, 67

  progestin, 113

  Prothero, Stephen, 156–57

  Prozac, 114

  psychiatrists, 109–12, 128

  psychologists, 112, 128, 177, 180, 203–5, 208, 232–34, 289n17

  Ptolemaic system, 19, 72

  PubMed, 112, 235

  Puritans, 151

  purity, 9, 11, 150, 168, 198, 215, 284n10

  quantum mechanics, 30, 41

  Question of Rest for Women during Menstruation, The (Jacobi), 79–80

  Quine, Willard Van Orman, 4, 25, 32, 37–39, 41, 43, 190, 261n58

  racism: eugenics and, 88–100; immigrants and, 89–97, 273n85; Nazis and, 5, 88, 91–94, 99; Nordic race and, 91, 97; people of color and, 51, 53, 61, 91, 98, 273n85; racial degeneration and, 88, 91, 97; sterilization and, 61, 78, 88, 93–94, 98, 101, 138, 272n62, 272n75, 274n97

  randomized trials, 6, 120, 123–24, 126, 134, 278n166

  rationalism, 26–28, 259n31, 284n4

  refutation, 11, 13, 20, 27–28, 33, 36–40, 73, 117, 233, 258n13, 259n31, 259n33

  Reid, Harry Fielding, 82–83

  relativism, 41, 46, 52, 263n89, 287n5

  relativity, 28, 39, 218, 232–33

  reliable knowledge: bias and, 135; collective activity and, 139; consensus and, 127–33; diversity and, 132, 136–37; economic issues and, 130, 133; epistemologies and, 165; evidence and, 128, 131, 133–36, 138, 233; evolution and, 6, 129; experience and, 131–34; experts and, 128–32; fraud and, 13, 231, 235–36, 240, 290n21, 291n37; humility and, 138–39; informed dissent and, 128; journals and, 131–33, 136; moral issues and, 130, 139; objectivity and, 132; petroleum industry and, 129–30; scientific method and, 127, 133–35, 139; scientific theories and, 135–37; skepticism and, 127, 139; truth and, 131, 137, 139; vaccinations and, 129, 219; values and, 136–38

  religion: Bible and, 148, 158, 282n26; Catholicism and, 64, 148, 151, 156–58, 228, 273n78, 287n5; Christians and, 8, 21, 129, 148–49, 153, 155, 157, 228, 273n78, 282n26; climate science and, 149, 155–58, 217–18, 227–28; Comte and, 20; consensus and, 228; Creation and, 8, 16–17, 156, 158; creationism and, 16–17, 158, 179, 182; diversity from, 14; doctrine and, 150; empiricism and, 24, 30; end times and, 282n26; ethics and, 44, 158, 227; evolution and, 70, 149, 155, 167, 197, 217–18; God and, 16–17, 64, 148, 152, 156, 158, 167, 197, 273n78, 282n26; Jews and, 91, 96, 156–57; Limited Energy Theory and, 79; moral issues and, 7, 21, 79, 157, 167, 215; Mormons and, 157; Pascal’s Wager and, 197; Pence and, 16; positive knowledge and, 20–23; Protestants and, 156; Puritans and, 151; Republicans and, 16–17; science and, 2, 7, 14, 16, 20–21, 24, 30, 44, 70, 74, 79, 147–50, 155, 158, 167, 197, 215, 217, 227–28, 258n12, 267n3; science studies and, 44; Ten Commandments and, 156–57; theology and, 20–21, 70, 150, 228, 287n6; vaccinations and, 63; values and, 2, 7, 147–50, 155–58, 167, 258n12

  replication issues, 11–12, 204–7, 226, 230, 234, 237, 240–41, 289n13, 289n17, 290n23

  Republicans, 293n3; broken government
and, 203; education and, 72; religion and, 16–17; values and, 148–49, 153, 155

  retractions, 12–13, 203, 206, 228–29, 233–38, 247, 289n14, 291n37, 292n43

  RetractionWatch.com, 206, 236

  revisions, 32, 36, 38, 199–200, 247

  Roberts, Dorothy E., 271n41

  Robeson, Paul, 98

  Robinson, Art, 174, 284n1

  robustness, 27, 53, 57, 133, 168

  Roosevelt, Teddy, 87–88, 91

  Rosner, David, 67

  Rudwick, Martin, 247

  Russell, Bertrand, 259n30

  Sachs, Jeffrey, 17

  Sagan, Carl, 179

  Santorum, Rick, 8, 148–49

  Save-the-Redwoods League, 91

  Schaffer, Simon, 44

  Schlick, Moritz, 30

  Schooler, Jonathan, 203–4

  Schuchert, Charles, 87

  science, 16–17; bias and, 7, 20, 51–59, 73, 82, 97, 107–8, 120, 135, 144, 175, 178–79, 205, 209, 211, 232, 236–37, 240, 249, 263n89, 263n91, 284n4; as collective activity, 2–3, 28–32, 39, 50, 52, 58, 68, 139, 174, 203, 246–48, 260n39; as consensual, 3, 19, 55, 60, 149; conservation laws of, 35, 38, 76, 138, 180; Creation and, 8, 156, 158; facsimile, 240–41, 292n49; failed theories of, 19, 60–61, 72, 203–6, 234–35; fraud and, 13, 231, 235–36, 240, 290n21, 291n37; God and, 16; Group on Best Practices in Science (BPS) and, 202, 206; hoaxes and, 119, 245, 291n37, 293n3, 293n55; incommensurability and, 10, 40–41, 43, 186, 190; metaphysics and, 20–22; Nobel Prize and, 67, 98, 104, 166, 174, 204, 263n88, 269n19; political debate masquerading as, 129; present and future of, 202–11; pure, 9, 150–51, 166, 168–69, 172, 177, 216; replication crisis and, 12–13, 228, 289n13; Sagan on, 179; as search for new knowledge, 170; technology and, 9, 152, 164, 166–69, 175, 178–80, 193, 213, 215–21, 284n2, 287n5

  Science, the Endless Frontier (Bush), 167–68

  Science and Human Values (Bronowski), 167

  Science journal, 205, 242

  Science Question in Feminism, The (Harding), 50–51

  science studies: absolutism and, 46, 48; diversity and, 47–48; Edinburgh school and, 44–49; evidence and, 44–46, 49; experience and, 40; failed theories of science and, 19, 72, 234–35; falsehoods and, 44–47; hypotheses and, 46; Kuhn and, 39–43; observation and, 40, 46, 48; p-hacking and, 207, 229; philosophy and, 19; relativism and, 41, 46, 52, 263n89, 287n5; religion and, 44; replication issues and, 11–12, 205–8, 211, 228, 232, 236, 239, 242–43, 290n23; rise of, 43–49; scientific method and, 39–49; scientific theories and, 41; social construction and, 43–50, 220, 262n70, 262n76; social turn in, 4, 54, 57; sociology of scientific knowledge and, 43–49; truth and, 4–5, 46–49

  scientific method: birth control and, 107–8, 113–14, 117; Comte and, 20–23, 42, 48; consensus and, 2, 6, 55, 127, 149, 249–50; continental drift and, 82–86; deduction and, 25, 76, 79, 82–84, 86, 89, 95, 135, 186–87, 219, 276n137; diversity and, 143, 246, 250; doctrine and, 20; empiricism and, 24–39, 79; epistemologies and, 52, 55, 177; eugenics and, 92, 102, 104; European, 5; evidence and, 6–7, 34, 37, 49, 79, 82, 86, 117, 127, 133–34, 143, 211, 246, 250; experiments and, 26 (see also experiments); fetishism and, 6–7, 134, 139, 250; general lessons on, 6; hypotheses and, 26 (see also hypotheses); induction and, 25–27, 34, 74, 82–84, 182, 185, 190; Krosnick and, 11; Kuhn and, 10, 39, 41–42, 186; limitations of, 68, 181, 246; naturalism and, 240, 276n137; objectivity and, 46–47 (see also objectivity); observation and, 3 (see also observation); openness and, 249; p-hacking and, 207, 229; philosophy and, 2–3, 29, 46, 55, 197, 211, 276n137; policy assessments and, 197; positive knowledge and, 20; and present and future of science, 202, 204, 209–10; refutation and, 11, 13, 20, 27–28, 33, 36–40, 73, 117, 233, 258n13, 259n31, 259n33; reliable knowledge and, 127, 133–35, 139; science studies and, 39–49; scientific theories and, 3, 186; self-reporting and, 107–8, 113; stages of, 183–84; under-determination and, 10, 32–39, 43, 190; values and, 149; verification and, 3, 24–27, 40

  scientific theories: Bacon and, 22; Comte and, 22–23; continental drift and, 83; critical positivity ratio and, 234–35; defending, 83, 220; development of, 83; diversity and, 7, 219; epistemologies and, 51, 55, 173, 179; eugenics and, 95; failed, 19, 60–61, 72, 203–6, 234–35; peer review and, 3, 7, 9, 32, 53, 58, 66, 75, 130–31, 140, 145–46, 182, 221, 237, 240–41, 247, 252, 266n136, 293n55; refutation and, 11, 13, 20, 27–28, 33, 36–40, 73, 117, 233, 258n13, 259n31, 259n33; reliable knowledge and, 135–37; religion and, 70; replication crisis and, 12–13, 208, 211, 228, 236, 239, 289n17, 290n23; retail challenges and, 186; retractions and, 12–13, 203, 206, 228–29, 233–37, 247, 289n14, 291n37, 292n43; revisions and, 32, 36, 38, 199–200, 247; scientific method and, 3, 186; wholesale challenges and, 186

  Scott, Colin, 62

  Seaman, Barbara, 109–11, 136

  Seismological Society of America, 82

  Sellars, Wilfrid, 185

  Seralini, Gilles, 292n43

  serotonin, 113–14, 134, 215

  Sex in Education; or, a Fair Chance for Girls (Clarke), 76–78, 270n33, 270n40

  sexism, 51, 136

  Sextus Empiricus, 183

  Shapin, Steven, 44, 167, 178

  Shelley, Mary, 258n12

  Shenton, Joan, 266n130

  Shockley, William, 60–61

  Shock of the Old, The (Edgerton), 178

  Showalter, Elaine, 76

  Showalter, English, 76

  Singewald, Joseph, 82

  skepticism: American Enterprise Institute (AEI) and, 17; attacking scientists and, 67–68, 255; climate change and, 4, 8, 12, 17, 73, 140, 148, 153, 192–93, 266n130, 283n29, 284n1; consensus and, 127, 233; disbelief and, 26, 44; dizziness and, 183–84; empiricism and, 26, 28, 36–37, 259n31; epistemologies and, 56, 59, 74, 163, 173; everyday trust and, 9; observation and, 26, 184; organizational agendas and, 4–5, 67; policy assessments and, 192–93, 287n5; rationalism and, 26–28, 259n31, 284n4; reliable knowledge and, 127, 139; roots of, 12; sore losers and, 146; values and, 148, 153, 157; wholesale, 183

  smallpox, 218

  social construction, 43–50, 220, 262n70, 262n76

  social costs of carbon (SCC), 191–92

  socialism, 28, 97, 101–2, 128, 136, 146, 173, 249, 273n86

  social turn, 4, 54, 57

  sociologists, 9, 20, 43–50, 55, 57, 108, 127, 150–51, 177, 262n70

  Sokal, Alan, 234

  Solomon, 158

  Soviet Union, 170, 216

  speculation, 1, 213, 235–36

  speed of light, 34

  Spiro, Jonathan, 91–92

  Stanford prison experiment, 204, 231–32, 290n23

  Stapel, Diederik, 203

  Stark, Laura, 143, 265n117

  Station for Experimental Evolution, 92, 272n71

  statistics, 12, 275n116; birth control and, 114–16; cancer clusters and, 281n14; correlation and, 116–17; dental floss and, 122; eugenics and, 102; experts and, 281n14; inadequate training in, 74; p-hacking and, 207, 229; reliable knowledge and, 133–34; misuse of, 73, 230, 268n13; system values and, 209

  Steen, Grant, 235

  Steinberg, Arthur, 171–72, 285n21, 285n22

  sterilization, 61, 78, 88, 93–94, 98, 101, 138, 272n62, 272n75, 274n97

  structural realists, 268n12

  Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Kuhn), 39, 261n65

  Stump v. Sparkman, 272n75

  suicide, 88, 95, 109–10, 113, 117, 275n121

  sunscreen, 13, 245, 250–55, 294n10, 294n11, 294n13

  sunspots, 63

  superstition, 20, 22, 24, 54, 263n91

  surveillance, 151, 177

  survival of fittest, 78, 89

  Tanner Lectures, 2, 13, 245, 271n41

  technofideists, 61

  technology: epistemologies and, 9, 164–69, 175, 178–80, 215–21; physics and, 152; policy assessments and, 193, 195; present and future of science and, 210; purity and, 168; Sagan on, 179; science and, 9, 152, 164, 166–69, 175, 178–80, 193, 213, 215–21,
284n2, 287n5; weapons and, 166–70, 177, 179, 216

  teleology, 20–21, 23

  Tello, Monique, 107–8

  Ten Commandments, 156–57

  tenure, 58, 210–11

  Termier, Pierre, 83–84

  tetanus, 16

  theology, 20–21, 70, 150, 228, 287n6

  theoretical anarchism, 47–48

  thermodynamics, 33, 35, 76–77, 138

  Thessalonians, Bible book of, 282n26

  Thomas, M. Carey, 78

  thought collectives, 28–32

  tobacco industry: cancer and, 65, 115, 239; diseases from products of, 65–66, 71, 123, 239; evidence and, 142; heart disease and, 65; misinformation and, 1, 65–67, 129, 142, 281n3, 290n26; paid studies and, 213, 240–42, 292n44; suppressed information and, 65–66, 266n136

  Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), 62

  traditions, 37, 43, 60, 62–63, 78, 102, 136, 165, 209, 220, 235, 260n39, 262n70

  transparency, 79, 152, 164, 178, 198, 211–12, 227

  Trump, Donald: climate science and, 10, 13, 191–92, 194, 293n3; exercise and, 269n25; petroleum industry and, 194; policy assessments and, 191–92, 194; social costs of carbon (SCC) and, 191–92; vaccinations and, 15–16, 71

  trust: birth control and, 104–17; consensus and, 2 (see also consensus); continental drift and, 80–87; crisis of, 1, 3, 13, 19, 237; dental floss and, 118–27; empiricism and, 24–30; epistemologies and, 49–59; eugenics and, 87–104; everyday, 9, 163–66, 177–79; faith and, 36, 56, 66, 68, 168, 178, 183; full disclosure and, 66, 237, 243, 269n14, 272n66; great men and, 3; informed, 4, 60, 141; Limited Energy Theory and, 76–80; Pascal’s Wager and, 140–46; peer review and, 3, 7, 9, 32, 53, 58, 66, 75, 130–31, 140, 145–46, 182, 221, 237, 240–41, 247, 252, 266n136, 293n55; policy assessments and, 191–201; positive knowledge and, 19–23; and present and future of science, 206; reliable knowledge and, 127–39; revisions and, 32, 36, 38, 199–200, 247; science studies and, 39–49; social effects and, 12, 18, 55, 57–58, 64, 68, 128, 141, 149, 152, 164, 166, 173, 175, 178, 192–93, 222, 225, 246–47, 268n4; values and, 8 (see also values)

  truth: circularity and, 181; complete grasp of, 7; consensus and, 222, 249; criterion for, 183; critical interrogation and, 58–60, 68, 137, 246, 266n136, 284n2; dimensional homogeneity and, 188–89; disclosure and, 66, 237, 243, 269n14, 272n66; empiricism and, 24, 32; epistemologies and, 50, 165, 169, 175, 177, 179; eugenics and, 100; innovation and, 208–9; instability of scientific, 74–75; intellectual honesty and, 13; justification and, 7, 24, 26, 42, 68, 71, 95–98, 151, 158, 183–86, 191, 198, 217, 224, 282n26; Limited Energy Theory and, 79; observation and, 19, 21, 24, 74; peer review and, 3, 7, 9, 32, 53, 58, 66, 75, 130–31, 140, 145–46, 182, 221, 237, 240–41, 247, 252, 266n136, 29n55; petroleum industry and, 4; positive knowledge and, 21, 249; post-truth, 70; present and future of science and, 202, 206, 208; production of, 137; reliable knowledge and, 131, 137, 139; science studies and, 4–5, 46–49; shared interest in, 5, 68; structural realism and, 268n12; temporary, 72, 74–75; transparency and, 79, 152, 164, 178, 198, 211–12, 227; utility and, 19, 151, 218–19; values and, 151; Weinberg on, 269n19