20. AH to Oliver Wolcott JR., 16 Dec. 1800, to Gouverneur Morris, 24 Dec. 1800, Papers of Hamilton, 25: 257, 272 .
21. AH to Theodore Sedgwick, 22 Dec. 1800, to Harrison Gray Otis, 23 Dec. 1800, to Gouverneur Morris, 24 Dec. 1800, Papers of Hamilton, 25: 270, 271, 272 .
22. AH to Gouverneur Morris, 26 Dec. 1800, Papers of Hamilton, 25: 275 .
23. TJ to Monroe, 15 Feb. 1801, Papers of Jefferson, 32: 594 .
24. TJ to Monroe, 15 Feb. 1801, Papers of Jefferson, 32: 594 .
25. Tadahisa Kuroda, The Origins of the Twelfth Amendment: The Electoral College in the early Republic, 1787–1804 (Westport, CT, 1994).
26. Ackerman, Failure of the Founding Fathers, 107.
27. MRS. Samuel Harrison Smith (Margaret Bayard), Forty Years of Washington Society, ED. Gaillard Hunt (London, 1906), 25 .
28. TJ to DR. Walter Jones, 31 March 1801, in L and B, eds., Writings of Jefferson, 10: 255–56 .
29. Since Henry Adams, Most Historians have played down the radical character of Jefferson’s Election in 1800. But see Jeffrey L. Pasley, “1800 as a Revolution in Political Culture: Newspapers, Celebrations, Voting and Democratization in the Early Republic,” in James Horn, Jan Ellen Lewis, and Peter S. Onuf, eds., The Revolution of 1800: Democracy, Race, and the New Republic (Charlottesville, 2002), 121, 52 .
30. TJ, First Inaugural Address, 4 March 1801, TJ to Dickinson, 6 March 1801, TJ to Priestley, 21 Mar. 1801, Jefferson: Writings, 493–96, 1084, 1086 .
31. TJ to JA, 13 Nov. 1787, Papers of Jefferson, 12: 351 .
32. Dumas Malone, Jefferson the President: First Term, 1801–1805 (BOSTON, 1970), 388 .
33. Malone, Jefferson the President: First Term, 383, 93 .
34. James Sterling Young, The Washington Community, 1800–1828 (NEW YORK, 1966), 90 .
35. Dumas Malone, Jefferson the President: Second Term, 1805–1809 (Boston, 1974), 568 .
36. Jeffrey L. Pasley, “Private Access and Public Power: Gentility and Lobbying in the Early Congress,” in Kenneth R. Bowling and Donald R. Kennon, EDS., The House and Senate in the 1790s: Petitioning, Lobbying, and Institutional Development (Athens, OH, 2002), 74–76 .
37. Richard Beale Davis, ED., Jeffersonian America: Note on the United States of America Collected in the Years 1805–6–7 and 11–12 by Sir Augustus John Foster, Bart. (San Marino, CA, 1954), 49 .
38. Davis, ED., Jeffersonian America, 8.
39. Malone, Jefferson the President: Second Term, 540.
40. Young, Washington Community, 46; William Seale, The President’s House (Washington, DC, 1986), 47–50 .
41. Young, Washington Community, 23.
42. Thomas Moore, Epistles, Odes, and other Poems (Philadelphia, 1806), 154 .
43. TJ, First Annual Message, 8 Dec. 1801, Jefferson: Writings, 504 .
44. Noble E. Cunningham JR., The Process of Government Under Jefferson (Princeton, 1978), 22 .
45. TJ, First Annual Message, 8 Dec. 1801, Jefferson: Writings, 504 .
46. Malone, Jefferson the President: First Term, 69.
47. Cunningham, Process of Government Under Jefferson, 22.
48. Malone, Jefferson the President: First Term, 386.
49. TJ to Samuel Adams, 26 Feb. 1800, Papers of Jefferson, 31: 395 .
50. Theodore J. Crackel, Mr. Jefferson’s Army: Political and Social Reform of the Military Establishment, 1801–1809 (New York, 1987); Robert M. S. McDonald, Thomas Jefferson’s Military Academy: The Founding of West Point (Charlottesville, 2004).
51. Ian W. Toll, Six Frigates: The Epic History of the Founding of the U.S. Navy (New York, 2006), 285 .
52. TJ to Pierre-Samuel Du Pont De Nemours, 18 Jan. 1802, in Ford, ed., Writings of Jefferson, 8: 127; Davis, ed., Jeffersonian America, 3 .
53. Ames to AH, 31 July 1791, Papers of Hamilton, 8: 590; Richard Sylla, John B. Legler, and John J. Wallis, “Banks and State Public Finance in the New Republic,” Journal of Economic History, 47 (1987), 391–403 .
54. Bray Hammond, Banks and Politics from the Revolution to the Civil War (Princeton, 1957), 188, 196, 189; TJ to JM, 1 Oct. 1792, Republic of Letters, 740; Gordon S. Wood, Revolutionary Characters: What Made the Founders Different (New York, 2006), 110; TJ to Col. Charles Yancey, 6 Jan. 1816, in Paul Ford, ed., Works of Thomas Jefferson: Federal Edition (1904–05), 11: 494 .
55. Howard Bodenhorn, State Banking in Early America: A New Economic History (New York, 2003), 14 .
56. Raymond Walters Jr., Albert Gallatin: Jeffersonian Financier and Diplomat (New York, 1957), 237, 239 .
57. Albert Gallatin to William H. Crawford, 30 Jan. 1811, in E. James Ferguson, ed., Selected Writings of Albert Gallatin (Indianapolis, 1967), 277 .
58. Pauline Maier, “The Debate over Incorporations: Massachusetts in the Early Republic,” in Conrad Edick Wright, ed., Massachusetts and the New Nation (Boston, 1992), 111; J. Van Fenstermaker, The Development of American Commercial Banking, 1782–1837 (Kent, OH, 1965), 4–14 .
59. Hammond, Banks and Politics, 145, 165; Charles G. Steffen, The Mechanics of Baltimore: Workers and Politics in the Age of Revolution (Urbana, IL, 1984), 192–95 .
60. Hammond, Banks and Politics, 147; Pennsylvania General Advertiser, 16 Feb. 1793; Richard Gabriel Stone, Hezekiah Niles as an Economist (Baltimore, 1933), 94–95; Fenstermaker, American Commercial Banking, 8 .
61.In Briscoe V. Bank of the Commonwealth of Kentucky (1837) the Supreme Court determined that Article 1, Section 10, prohibiting the states from issuing paper money, did not apply to the banks chartered by the states.
62. Hammond, Banks and Politics, 188, 196 .
63. Jane Kamensky, The Exchange Artist: A Tale of High-Flying Speculation and America’s First Banking Collapse (New York, 2008), 9, 160 .
64. Hammond, Banks and Politics, 189; Peter L. Rousseau and Richard Sylla, “Emerging Financial Markets and Early US Growth,” Explorations in Economic History, 42 (2005), 1–26, quotation at 20–21 .
65. TJ to Taylor, 26 Nov. 1798, Papers of Jefferson, 30: 589 .
66. Herbert E. Sloan, Principle and Interest: Thomas Jefferson and the Problem of Debt (New York, 1995), 196 .
67. TJ to Gallatin, 11 Oct. 1809, in Ford, ed., Writings of Jefferson, 9: 264 .
68. Noble Cunningham Jr., The Jeffersonian Republicans in Power: Party Operations, 1801–1809 (Chapel Hill, 1963), 17 .
69. Cunningham, Jeffersonian Republicans in Power, 23–29; Broussard, Southern Federalists, 44 .
70. Leonard D. White, The Jeffersonians: A Study in Administrative History, 1801–1829 (New York, 1951), 81 .
71. Jon Kukla, Mr. Jefferson’s Women (New York, 2007), 185; Merry Ellen Scofield, “The Fatigues of His Table: The Politics of Presidential Dining During the Jefferson Administration,” JER, 26 (2006), 449–69 .
72. Maxwell H. Bloomfield, American Lawyers in a Changing Society, 1776–1876 (Cambridge, MA, 1976), 37 .
73. See Especially David Daggett, Sun-Beams may be Extracted from Cucumbers, but the process is Tedious (New Haven, 1799).
74. AH to Rufus King, 3 June 1802, Papers of Hamilton, 26: 14; AH, “Views on the French Revolution,” (1794), Papers of Hamilton, 26: 739–40 .
75. Chilton Williamson, American Suffrage: From Property to Democracy, 1760–1860 (Princeton, 1960); Alexander Keyssar, The Right to Vote: The Contested History of Democracy in the United States (New York, 2000). Philip Lampi’s Collection of American Election Data, 1787–1825, for presidential, congressional, gubernatorial, and state legislative elections revolutionizes historians’ understanding of the development of democracy in the early Republic; it is available online via the American Antiquarian Society’s Web page: “A New Nation Votes: American Election Returns, 1787–1825.”
76. James M. Banner JR., To the Hartford Convention: The Federalists and the Origins of Party Politics in Massachusetts, 1789–1815 (New York, 1970), 39 .
77. William C. Dowling, Literary Federalism in the Age of Jefferson: Joseph Dennie and the Port Folio, 1801–1812 (Columbia,
SC, 1999), 6 .
78. Fisher Ames, “The Mire of Democracy” (Nov. 1805), in Lewis P. Simpson, ed., The Federalist Literary Mind: Selections from the Monthly Anthology and Boston Review, 1803–1811 (Baton Rouge, 1962), 54 .
79. Albrecht Koschnik, “Young Federalists, Masculinity, and Partisanship During the War of 1812,” in Jeffery L. Pasley, Andrew W. Robertson, and David Waldstreicher, eds., Beyond the Founders: New Approaches to the Political History of the Early Republic (Chapel Hill, 2004), 166–68 .
80. Isenberg, Fallen Founder, 145.
81. Donald J. Ratcliffe, Party Spirit in a Frontier Republic: Democratic Politics in Ohio, 1793–1821 (Columbus, OH, 1998), 81 .
82. Linda K. Kerber, Federalists in Dissent: Imagery and Ideology in Jeffersonian America (Ithaca, 1970), 162; Fischer, Revolution of American Conservatism, 26 .
83. Fischer, Revolution of American Conservatism, 32; AH to William Hamilton, 2 May 1797, Papers of Hamilton, 21: 78 .
84. Steven J. Novak, The Rights of Youth: American Colleges and Student Revolt, 1798–1815 (Cambridge, MA, 1977), 55 .
85. White, The Jeffersonians, 13.
86. Marshall Foletta, Coming to Terms with Democracy: Federalist Intellectuals and the Shaping of an American Culture (Charlottesville, 2001), 30 .
87. Winfred E. A. Bernard, Fisher Ames: Federalist and Statesman, 1758–1808 (Chapel Hill, 1965), 341 .
88. Ames to Oliver Wolcott, 3 Aug. 1800, Works of Fisher Ames (1854), ed. W. B. Allen (Indianapolis, 1983), 2: 1368 .
89. Broussard, Southern Federalists, 308.
90. Banner, To the Hartford Convention, 133–34; Albrecht Koschnik, “Let a Common Interest Bind Us Together”: Associations, Partisanship, and Culture in Philadelphia, 1775–1840 (Charlottesville, 2007), 3–4, 153–83 .
91. Fischer, Revolution of American Conservatism, 86.
92. Ronald P. Formisano, The Transformation of Political Culture: Massachusetts Parties, 1790s–1840s (New York, 1983), 74 .
93. David Waldstreicher, In the midst of Perpetual Fetes: The Making of American Nationalism (Chapel Hill, 1997), 216 .
94. Pasley, “1800 as a Revolution in Political Culture,” in Horn et al., eds., The Revolution of 1800, 132–33; Jeffrey L. Pasley, “The Tyranny of Printers”: Newspaper Politics in the Early American Republic (Charlottesville, 2001), 126, 153–75; TJ to Priestley, 21 March 1801, Jefferson: Writings, 1086 .
95. Pasley, “Tyranny of Printers,” 236; Ames to Christopher Gore, 13 Dec. 1802, Works of Ames, ed. Allen, 2: 1445–46. See Charles G. Steffen, “Newspapers for Free: The Economies of Newspaper Circulation in the Early Republic,” JER, 23 (2004), 381–419 .
96. William Crafts JR., An Oration on the Influence of Moral causes on National Character, Delivered Before the Phi Beta Kappa Society, on their Anniversary, 28 August, 1817 (Cambridge MA, 1817), 5–6; Tunis Wortman, A Treatise Concerning Political Enquiry, and the Liberty of the Press (New York, 1800), 180 .
97. Gordon S. Wood, “The Democratization of Mind in the American Revolution,” in Leadership in the American Revolution: Library of Congress Symposia in the American Revolution (Washington, DC, 1974), 67; this article has an extended analysis of public opinion (63–89), from which this discussion is drawn.
98. JM to BR, 7 March 1790, Papers of Madison, 13: 93; JM, “Public Opinion,” 19 Dec. 1791, Madison: Writings, 500–501 .
99. [George Hay], An Essay on the Liberty of the Press (Philadelphia, 1799), 40; TJ, Inaugural Address, 4 March 1801, Jefferson: Writings, 493 .
100. Richard Buel Jr., Securing the Revolution: Ideology in American Politics, 1789–1815 (Ithaca, 1972), 252 .
101. John C. Miller, The Federalist Era, 1789–1801 (New York, 1960), 232; Isaac Chapman Bates, An Oration, Pronounced at Northampton, July 4, 1805 (Northampton, MA, 1805), 6–7, 15 .
102. TJ, Inaugural Address, 4 March 1801, Jefferson: Writings, 493; BR to TJ, 12 March 1801, Letters of Rush, 2: 831. Of course, the new liberal idea of freedom of the press did not immediately take hold. As late as 1813, for example, Chief Justice James Kent of the New York Supreme Court still clung to the notion that “individual character must be protected, or social happiness and domestic peace are destroyed,” and upheld a libel charge against a printer in the state of New York. Donald Roper, “James Kent and the Emergence of New York’s Libel Law,” American Journal of Legal History, 17 (1973), 228–29 .
103. Wortman, Treatise Concerning Political Enquiry, 118.
104. Wortman, Treatise Concerning Political Enquiry, 118–19, 122–23, 155–57 .
105. TJ to JA, 11 Jan. 1816, in Lester J. Cappon, ed., The Adams-Jefferson Letters: The Complete Correspondence Between Thomas Jefferson and Abigail and John Adams (Chapel Hill, 1959), 2: 458 .
106. Wortman, A Treatise Concerning Political Enquiry, 180; Richard E. Welch Jr., Theodore Sedgwick, Federalist: A Political Portrait (Middletown, CT, 1965), 211.
107. Samuel Williams, The Natural and Civil History of Vermont (Walpole, NH, 1794), 2: 394; Joseph Hopkinson, Annual Discourse, Delivered Before the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts (1810), in Gordon S. Wood, ed., The Rising Glory of America, 1760–1820, rev. ed. (Boston, 1990) 333; Ames, “The Mire of Democracy,” in Simpson, ed., Federalist Literary Mind, 54.
108. Ratcliffe, Party Spirit in a Frontier Republic, 86.
109. Koschnik, “Let a Common Interest Bind Us Together,” 184–227; Foletta, Coming to Terms with Democracy.
110. Richard E. Ellis, The Jeffersonian Crisis: Courts and Politics in the Young Republic (New York, 1971), 234 .
111. Andrew Shankman, Crucible of American Democracy: The Struggle to Fuse Egalitarianism and Capitalism in Jeffersonian Pennsylvania (Lawrence, KS, 2004), 146, 147 .
1. In the opening chapters of his classic account of the Jefferson and Madison administrations, Henry Adams exaggerated the traditional and static character of American society in 1800 in order to contrast it with a more modern and dynamic America at the end of Madison’s presidency in 1817. But America in 1800 was already an energetic and enterprising society and anything but stable. The roots of the extraordinary changes taking place in this period lay in the Revolution, not in Jefferson’s election. For a necessary corrective to Adams, see Noble E. Cunningham, The United States in 1800: Henry Adams Revisited (Charlottesville, 1988.) For a justification of Adams’s approach, see Garry Wills, Henry Adams and the Making of America (Boston, 2005).
2. Herbert S. Klein, A Population History of the United States (Cambridge, UK, 2004), 77. The fertility of black women was equally high.
3. Ralph H. Brown, Mirror for Americans: Likeness of the Eastern Seaboard, 1810 (New York, 1943), 30.
4. Niles’ Weekly Register, 1 (1811–12), 10.
5. Edward J. Nygren and Bruce Robertson, eds., Views and Visions: American Landscape Before 1830 (Washington, DC, 1986), 37; Max Farrand, ed., The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787 (New Haven, 1911, 1937), 1: 583.
6. Cunningham, United States in 1800, 6; Richard C. Wade, The Urban Frontier: Pioneer Life in Early Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, Lexington, Louisville, and St. Louis (Chicago, 1959); Harriet Simpson Arnow, Flowering of the Cumberland (Lexington, KY, 1963), 90.
7. Monthly Magazine, 1 (1799), 129.
8. Monthly Magazine, 1 (1799), 129; William A. Schaper, Sectionalism and Representation in South Carolina (1901; New York, 1968), 139.
9. Curtis P. Nettels, The Emergence of a National Economy, 1775–1815 (New York, 1962), 158–59.
10. Andrew R. L. Cayton, The Frontier Republic: Ideology and Politics in the Ohio Country, 1780–1825 (Kent, OH, 1986), 116; Lucy Fletcher Kellogg, in Joyce Appleby, ed., Recollections of the Early Republic: Selected Autobiographies (Boston, 1997), 145, 147; Malcolm J. Rohrbough, The Trans-Appalachian Frontier: People, Societies, and Institutions, 1775–1850 (New York, 1978), 36–37, 96–97; Noel M. Loomis, “Philip Nolan’s Entry into Texas in 1800,” in John Francis McDermott, ed., The Spanish in the Mississippi Valley, 1762–1804 (Urbana, IL, 1974), 120.
1
1. James L. Huston, Securing the Fruits of Labor: The American Concepts of Wealth Distribution, 1765–1900 (Baton Rouge, 1998), 89; Adna Ferrin Weber, The Growth of Cities in the Nineteenth Century: A Study in Statistics (New York, 1969), 40–47; Philip Abrams and E. A. Wrigley, eds., Towns in Society: Essays in Economic History and Historical Sociology (Cambridge, UK, 1978), 247–48.
12. Franklin, “Information to Those Who Would Remove to America,” (1784), Franklin: Writings, 975.
13. Jerry Grundfest, George Clymer: Philadelphia Revolutionary, 1739–1813 (New York, 1982), 141; Lucius Versus Bierce, Travels in the Southland, 1822–1823: The Journal of Lucius Versus Bierce, ed. George W. Knepper (Columbus, OH, 1966), 103.
14. Patricia S. Watlington, The Partisan Spirit: Kentucky Politics, 1779–1792 (New York, 1972), 46; Morris Birkbeck, Letters from Illinois (London, 1818), 14; Rohrbough, Trans-Appalachian Frontier, 55; William C. Preston, Reminiscences, quoted in Charles L. Sanford, ed., Quest for America, 1810–1824 (New York, 1964), 26; Donald B. Cole, “A Yankee in Kentucky: The Early Years of Amos Kendall, 1789–1828,” Mass. Hist. Soc., Proc., 109 (1997), 31.
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