30. John, Spreading the News, 3, 4, 25–63.
31. Allen R. Pred, Urban Growth and the Circulation of Information: The United States System of Cities, 1790–1840 (Cambridge, MA, 1975), 36–42; John, Spreading the News, 17–18; Brown, Strength of a People, 85–118.
32. John, Spreading the News, 36–42.
33. Alfred M. Lee, The Daily Newspaper in America (New York, 1937), 715–17; Frank Luther Mott, American Journalism: A History of American Newspapers in the United States Through 250 Years, 1690–1940 (New York, 1941), 159, 167; Merle Curti, The Growth of American Thought, 3rd ed. (New York, 1964), 209; Donald H. Stewart, The Opposition Press of the Federalist Period (Albany, 1969), 15, 624.
34. Richard R. John and Christopher J. Young, “Rites of Passage: Postal Petitioning as a Tool of Governance in the Age of Federalism,” in Kenneth R. Bowling and Donald R. Kennon, eds., The House and Senate in the 1790s: Petitioning, Lobbying, and Institutional Development (Athens, OH, 2002), 129.
35. J. M. Opal, Beyond the Farm: National Ambitions in Rural New England (Philadelphia, 2008), 56–63.
36. TJ, Message to Congress, 19 Feb. 1808, in James D. Richardson, ed., A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents, 1789–1897 (Washington, DC, 1900), 1: 429.
37. Wallace Hutcheon Jr., Robert Fulton: Pioneer of Undersea Warfare (Annapolis, 1981), 114–15.
38. Hutcheon, Robert Fulton, 4–15, 114–15.
39. Hutcheon, Robert Fulton, 117.
40. Kenneth L. Sokoloff, “Inventive Activity in Early Industrial America: Evidence from Patent Records,” Journal of Economic History, 48 (1988), 813–50.
41. TJ, Sixth Annual Message, 2 Dec. 1806, Jefferson: Writings, 529.
42. John Lauritz Larson, Internal Improvement: National Public Works and the Promise of Popular Government in the Early United States (Chapel Hill, 2001), 67–68.
43. Gordon S. Wood, The Radicalism of the American Revolution (New York, 1992), 192.
44. TJ to Maria Cosway, 12 Oct. 1786, Papers of Jefferson, 10: 447–48.
45. Merrill Jensen, The New Nation: A History of the United States During the Confederation, 1781–1789 (New York, 1950), 141.
46. Conrad E. Wright, The Transformation of Charity in Post-Revolutionary New England (Boston, 1992), 63.
47. Edward Dorr Griffin, Sermon, Preached August 11, 1811, for the Benefit of the Portsmouth Female Asylum (Boston, 1811), 16.
48. American Museum, 5 (1789), 555; Richard D. Brown, “The Emergence of Urban Society in Rural Massachusetts, 1760–1820,” JAH, 61 (1974), 29–51; Richard D. Brown, “The Emergence of Voluntary Associations in Massachusetts, 1760–1830,” Journal of Voluntary Action Research, 2 (1973), 64–73; Albrecht Koschnik, “Let a Common Interest Bind Us Together”: Associations, Partisanship, and Culture in Philadelphia, 1775–1840 (Charlottesville, 2007).
49. BR, “To the Ministers of All Denominations,” 21 June 1788, Letters of Rush, 1: 461–62; Lyman Beecher, A Reformation of Morals Practicable and Indispensable: A Sermon Delivered at New Haven on the Evening of October 27, 1812 (Andover, MA, 1814), 18.
50. “Formation and Constitution of the Columbia Moral Society,” Columbia Magazine, 1 (1814–1815), 179–85.
51. Dewitt Clinton, An Address, Delivered Before the Holland Lodge, December 24, 1793 (New York, 1794), 15.
52. Raymond A. Mohl, Poverty in New York, 1783–1825 (New York, 1971), 166.
53. M. J. Heale, “Humanitarianism in the Early Republic: The Moral Reformers of New York, 1776–1825,” Journal of American Studies, 2 (1968), 161–75; Clare A. Lyons, Sex Among the Rabble: An Intimate History of Gender and Power in the Age of Revolution, Philadelphia, 1730–1830 (Chapel Hill, 2006), 321–22, 354–95.
54. Oliver Wendell Elsbree, The Rise of the Missionary Spirit in America, 1790–1815 (Williamsport, PA, 1928), 63.
55. Elsbree, Rise of the Missionary Spirit, 64.
56. William R. Hutchison, Errand to the World: American Protestant Thought and Foreign Missions (Chicago, 1987), 43–61.
57. Recollections of Samuel Breck, ed. H. E. Scudder (Philadelphia, 1877), 36–37; Linda Kealey, “Patterns of Punishment in Massachusetts in the Eighteenth Century,” American Journal of Legal History, 30 (1986), 163–76.
58. Louis Masur, Rites of Execution: Capital Punishment and the Transformation of American Culture, 1776–1865 (New York, 1989), 72.
59. Lynn Hunt, Inventing Human Rights: A History (New York, 2007), 76.
60. Masur, Rites of Execution, 37.
61. Masur, Rites of Execution, 77; American Museum, 7 (March 1790), 137.
62. Masur, Rites of Execution, 72.
63. TJ, A Bill for Proportioning Crimes and Punishments in Cases Heretofore Capital (1776–1786), Papers of Jefferson, 2: 492–507.
64. Masur, Rites of Execution, 65, 71, 80–82, 88, 87; Adam J. Hirsch, “From Pillory to Penitentiary: The Rise of Criminal Incarceration in Early Massachusetts,” Michigan Law Review, 80 (1982), 1179–269; Linda Kealey, “Patterns of Punishment: Massachusetts in the Eighteenth Century,” American Journal of Legal History, 30 (1986), 1631–76; Michael Meranze, “The Penitential Ideal in Late Eighteenth-Century Philadelphia,” Penn. Mag. of Hist. and Biog., 108 (1984), 419–50; Bradley Chapin, “Felony Law Reform in the Early Republic,” Penn. Mag. of Hist. and Biog., 113 (1989), 163–83; Thomas Paine, Rights of Man (1791), in Philip S. Foner, ed., The Complete Writings of Thomas Paine (New York, 1969), 1: 265–66; Hunt, Inventing Human Rights, 112.
65. Michael Meranze, Laboratories of Virtue: Punishment, Revolution, and Authority in Philadelphia, 1760–1835 (Chapel Hill, 1996), 71; Masur, Rites of Execution, 82.
66. Adam Jay Hirsch, The Rise of the Penitentiary: Prisons and Punishment in Early America (New Haven, 1992), 61–66.
67. John Melish, Travels Through the United States of America in the Years 1806 and 1807, and 1809, 1810, and 1811 (London, 1813), 124.
68. Michael Grossberg, Governing the Hearth: Law and the Family in Nineteenth-Century America (Chapel Hill, 1985), 3; JA, Diary and Autobiography, 1: 123.
69. Christopher Clark, Social Change in America: From the Revolution Through the Civil War (Chicago, 2006), 71.
70. Abigail Adams to JA, 31 March 1776, in Margaret A. Hogan and C. James Taylor, eds., My Dearest Friend: Letters of Abigail and John Adams (Cambridge, MA, 2007), 110.
71. Mary Kelley, Private Women, Public Stage: Literary Domesticity in Nineteenth-Century America (New York, 1984), 65.
72. David C. Ward, Charles Willson Peale: Art and Selfhood in the Early Republic (Berkeley, 2004), 136–39.
73. Mary Beth Norton, Liberty’s Daughters: The Revolutionary Experience of American Women, 1750–1800 (Boston, 1980) 240–41, 235.
74. George Sensabaugh, Milton in Early America (Princeton, 1964), 195–217.
75. Linda K. Kerber, Women of the Republic: Intellect and Ideology in Revolutionary America (Chapel Hill, 1980); Jan Lewis, “The Republican Wife: Virtue and Seduction in the Early Republic,” WMQ, 44 (1987), 689–712.
76. Frank L. Dewey, “Thomas Jefferson’s Notes on Divorce,” WMQ, 39 (1982), 212–23; Nancy F. Cott, “Divorce and the Changing Status of Women in Eighteenth-Century Massachusetts,” WMQ, 33 (1976), 586–614; Sheldon S. Cohen, “The Broken Bond: Divorce in Providence County, 1749–1809,” in Patrick T. Conley, ed., Liberty and Justice: A History of Law and Lawyers in Rhode Island, 1636–1998 (East Providence, 1998), 224–37; Mary Beth Sievens, Stray Wives: Marital Conflict in Early National New England (New York, 2005); Sarah Leavitt, “‘She Hath Left My Bed and Board’: Runaway Wives in Rhode Island, 1790–1810,” Rhode Island History, 58 (2000), 91–104; Sara Tabak Damiano, “From the Shadows of the Bar: Law and Women’s Legal Literacy in Eighteenth-Century Newport” (Honors thesis, Brown University, 2008), 122–54.
77. Stanley N. Katz, “Republicanism and the Law of Inheritance in the American Revolutionary Era,” Michigan Law Review, 76 (1977), 1–29; Holly Brewer, By Birth or Consent: Children, Law, and the Anglo-American Rev
olution in Authority (Chapel Hill, 2005).
78. Frank Luther Mott, Golden Multitudes: The Story of Best Sellers in the United States (New York, 1960), 40, 30; James D. Hart, The Popular Book: A History of America’s Literary Taste (Berkeley, 1961), 61; Lewis, “Republican Wife,” 696.
79. Joyce Appleby, Inheriting the Revolution: The First Generation of Americans (Cambridge, MA, 2000), 173.
80. Jay Fliegelman, Prodigals and Pilgrims: The American Revolution Against Patriarchal Authority, 1750–1800 (Cambridge, MA, 1982), 86–87.
81. Norton, Liberty’s Daughters, 236.
82. Grossberg, Governing the Hearth, 26–27.
83. Jon Kukla, Mr. Jefferson’s Women (New York, 2007), 167–72; Nancy Isenberg, Fallen Founder: The Life of Aaron Burr (New York, 2007), 433.
84. Linda Kerber, Toward an Intellectual History of Women: Essays (Chapel Hill, 1997), 35.
85. Rosemarie Zagarri, “The Rights of Man and Woman in Post-Revolutionary America,” WMQ, 55 (1998), 210; Rosemarie Zagarri, Revolutionary Backlash: Women and Rights in the Early American Republic (Philadelphia, 2007).
86. Larry E. Tise, The American Counterrevolution: A Retreat from Liberty, 1783–1800 (Mechanicsburg, PA, 1998), 178–83.
87. Kerber, Toward an Intellectual History of Women, 23; Martha Tomhave Blauvelt, The Work of the Heart: Young Women and Emotion, 1780–1830 (Charlottesville, 2007).
88. Marylynn Salmon, “Republican Sentiments, Economic Change, and the Property Rights of Women in American Law,” in Ronald Hoffman and Peter J. Albert, eds., Women in the Age of the American Revolution (Charlottesville, 1989), 450–51.
89. Zagarri, “Rights of Man and Woman in Post-Revolutionary America,” 225.
90. Zagarri, “Rights of Man and Woman in Post-Revolutionary America,” 217.
91. Kerber, Toward an Intellectual History of Women, 36.
92. Antoine Louis Claude Destutt de Tracy, Commentary and Review of Montesquieu’s Spirit of the Laws (Philadelphia, 1811), 72; Joseph Hopkinson, Annual Discourse, Delivered Before the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts (1810), in Gordon S. Wood, ed., The Rising Glory of America, rev. ed. (Boston, 1990), 337.
93. Lewis, “Republican Wife,” 689–721; James Fordyce, Sermons to Young Women: A New Edition (Philadelphia, 1787), 20; Hopkinson, Annual Discourse, in Wood, ed., Rising Glory of America, 337.
94. Catherine Allgor, Parlor Politics: In Which the Ladies of Washington Help Build a City and a Government (Charlottesville, 2000), 4–101; Zagarri, Revolutionary Backlash.
95. Lewis, “Republican Wife,” 689–721.
96. Zagarri, Revolutionary Backlash, 177.
97. Kerber, Toward an Intellectual History of Women, 29.
98. BR, “Thoughts upon Female Education” (1787), in Rudolph, ed., Essays on Education, 36.
99. Zagarri, “Rights of Man and Woman in Post-Revolutionary America,” 218.
100. Doggett, Discourse on Education (1797), in Rudolph, ed., Essays on Education, 159; Bullock, “‘Sensible Signs,’ in Kennon, ed., A Republic for the Ages, 196.
101. Norton, Liberty’s Daughters, 271–72.
102. Mary Kelley, Learning to Stand and Speak: Women, Education, and Public Life in America’s Republic (Chapel Hill, 2006).
103. Zagarri, “Rights of Man and Woman in Post-Revolutionary America,” 224, 226.
104. Tise, American Counterrevolution, 161–63.
105. Alfred F. Young, Masquerade: The Life and Times of Deborah Sampson, Continental Soldier (New York, 2004), 202.
106. Young, Masquerade, 220, 221, 223, 224.
107. Charles Brockden Brown, Alcuin: A Dialogue (New York, 1798), 57–59; Kerber, Toward an Intellectual History of Women, 37.
108. David Hackett Fischer, The Revolution of American Conservatism: The Federalist Party in the Era of Jeffersonian Democracy (New York, 1965), 184; TJ to Gallatin, 13 Jan. 1813, in Henry Adams, ed., The Writings of Albert Gallatin (Philadelphia, 1879), 1: 328.
1. Lynn Hunt, Inventing Human Rights: A History (New York, 2007), 207.
2. As David Brion Davis has pointed out, a “French Scholar, Raymond Mauny, estimates that between 600 and 1800 as many as fourteen million African slaves were exported to Muslim regions.” Davis, Challenging the Boundaries of Slavery (Cambridge, MA, 2003), 10.
3. See “New Perspectives on the Transatlantic Slave Trade,” to which the entire issue of January 2001 of the WMQ, 58 (2001), is devoted.
4. Philip Morgan, Slave Counterpoint: Black Culture in the Eighteenth-Century Chesapeake and the Lowcountry (Chapel Hill, 1998), 165.
5. Morgan, Slave Counterpoint, 148.
6. Morgan, Slave Counterpoint, 170–75; Robert F. Dalzell Jr. and Lee Baldwin Dalzell, George Washington’s Mount Vernon: At Home in Revolutionary America (New York, 1998), 132–33; Lorena S. Walsh, “Slave Life, Slave Society, and Tobacco Production in the Tidewater Chesapeake, 1620–1820,” in Ira Berlin and Philip D. Morgan, eds., Cultivation and Culture: Labor and the Shaping of Slave Life in the Americas (Charlottesville, 1993), 170–99; Sarah S. Hughes, “Slaves for Hire: The Allocation of Black Labor in Elizabeth City County, Virginia, 1782 to 1810,” WMQ, 35 (1978), 260–86.
7. Isaac Weld, Travels Through the States of North America (London, 1799), 1: 147.
8. Morgan, Slave Counterpoint, 148.
9. Morgan, Slave Counterpoint, 49–50.
10. Morgan, Slave Counterpoint, 79, 594; Philip Morgan, “Black Society in the Lowcountry, 1760–1810,” in Ira Berlin and Ronald Hoffman, eds., Slavery and Freedom in the Age of the American Revolution (Charlottesville, 1983), 89; John W. Blassingame, The Slave Community: Plantation Life in the Ante-Bellum South (New York, 1972), 17–40; Sylvia R. Frey, Water from the Rock: Black Resistance in a Revolutionary Age (Princeton, 1991), 41–42; Lawrence W. Levine, Black Culture and Black Consciousness: Afro-American Folk Thought from Slavery to Freedom (New York, 1977); Shane White and Graham White, The Sounds of Slavery: Discovering African American History Through Songs, Sermons, and Speech (Boston, 2005).
11. John Campbell, “As ‘A Kind of Freeman’? Slaves’ Market Related Activities in the South Carolina Up Country, 1800–1860,” in Berlin and Morgan, eds., Cultivation and Culture, 244.
12. Dalzell and Dalzell, George Washington’s Mount Vernon, 129, 212–13.
13. Morgan, Slave Counterpoint, 393; Winthrop D. Jordan, White over Black: American Attitudes Toward the Negro, 1550–1812 (Chapel Hill, 1968), 228–34.
14. Morgan, Slave Counterpoint, 258.
15. Morgan, Slave Counterpoint, 405–7.
16. Annette Gordon-Reed, The Hemingses of Monticello: An American Family (New York, 2008), has mounted an enormous amount of persuasive evidence that Jefferson maintained Sally Hemings as his concubine.
17. Lucia C. Stanton, “‘Those Who Labor for My Happiness’: Thomas Jefferson and His Slaves,” in Peter S. Onuf, ed., Jeffersonian Legacies (Charlottesville, 1993), 155, 150.
18. Stanton, “‘Those Who Labor for my Happiness,’” in Onuf, ed., Jeffersonian Legacies, 158, 160; TJ, Notes on the State of Virginia, ed. William Peden (Chapel Hill, 1955), 162.
19. Gary B. Nash, “Slaves and Slaveowners in Colonial Philadelphia,” WMQ, 30 (1973), 237; Shane White, Somewhat More Independent: The End of Slavery in New York City, 1770–1810 (Athens, GA, 1991), 16.
20. Joanne Pope Melish, Disowning Slavery: Gradual Emancipation and “Race” in New England, 1780–1860 (Ithaca, 1998).
21. William D. Pierson, Black Yankees: The Development of an Afro-American Subculture in Eighteenth-Century New England (Amherst, MA, 1988), 15.
22. Gary B. Nash, The Unknown American Revolution: The Unruly Birth of Democracy and the Struggle to Create America (New York, 2005), 32.
23. Samuel Johnson, Taxation No Tyranny (1775), in Samuel Johnson: Political Writings, ed. Donald J. Greene (New Haven, 1977), 454; James Otis, The Rights of the British Colonists Asserted and Proved (1764), in Bernard Bailyn, ed., Pamphlets of the American Revolution, 1750–1776 (Cambridge, MA, 1965),
1: 439.
24. Bernard Bailyn, The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution (Cambridge, MA, 1967), 239.
25. TJ, A Summary View of the Rights of British America (1774), Jefferson: Writings, 115–16.
26. Gary B. Nash, Race and Revolution (Madison, WI, 1990), 9; BR to Granville Sharp, 1Nov. 1774, in John A. Woods, ed., “The Correspondence of Benjamin Rush and Granville Sharp, 1773–1809,” Journal of American Studies, 1 (1967), 13.
27. Jefferson to Jean Nicolas Démeunier, 26 June 1786, Papers of Jefferson, 10: 63; Adam Rothman, Slave Country: American Expansion and the Origins of the Deep South (Cambridge, MA, 2005), 2.
28. For examples of these anti-slave expressions, see James G. Basker et al., eds., Early American Abolitionists: A Collection of Anti-Slavery Writings, 1760–1820 (New York, 2005).
29. Patrick T. Conley and John P. Kaminski, eds., The Bill of Rights and the States: The Colonial and Revolutionary Origins of American Liberties (Madison, WI, 1992), 202.
30. Ira Berlin, Many Thousands Gone: The First Two Centuries of Slavery in North America (Cambridge, MA, 1998), 232.
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