by John Butman
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Insert credits and copyright information
Here: John Dee, by unknown artist; c. 1594 (© Ashmolean Museum, University of Oxford); John Dudley, Duke of Northumberland (© National Trust Images/John Hammond); Map by Martin Waldseemüller, printed in Universalis Cosmographia; 1507 (Geography and Map Division, Library of Congress); Title page of The Commonwealth of England, by Thomas Smith, 1609; Sebastian Cabot, engraving after Hans Holbein, 1824 (© National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, London)
Here: Martin Frobisher by Cornelis Ketel, c. 1577 (The Bodleian Library, University of Oxford); William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley, by unknown artist (© National Portrait Gallery, London); Anne, Countess of Warwick, attributed to The Master of the Countess of Warwick, 1566–1569 (From The Woburn Abbey Collection); Matthew Baker, an image from Fragments of Ancient English Shipwrightry (By permission of the Pepys Library, Magdalene College Cambridge)
Here: A chart showing Frobisher’s straits and surrounding area, from A True Discourse of the late voyages of discouerie…, 1578 (© British Library Board/Robana/Art Resource, NY); An image from Accounts, with subsidiary documents, of Michael Lok, treasurer, of first, second and third voyages of Martin Frobisher to Cathay by the north-west passage, 1576–1578 (© The National Archives, UK); Mining in Potosí, engraving by Theodor de Bry in Historia Americae sive Novi Orbis; 1596 (Image & Sound Collections, International Institute of Social History [Amsterdam])
Here: LONDON, c. 1560, Engraving from Civitates Orbis Terrarum, by Frans Hogenberg, 1572 (Wikimedia Commons. Public domain. In the collection of the Universitätsbibliothek, Heidelberg); Portrait of Sir Thomas Gresham, by Anthonis Mor, c. 1560–c. 1565, (Wikimedia Commons. Public domain. In the collection of the Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam); The Royal Exchange, London, by Frans Hogenberg; c. 1569 (Wellcome Library, London. Wellcome Images [email protected] http://wellcomeimages.org)
Here: GILBERT’S MAP OF THE WORLD, 1576, A general map, made onelye for the particuler declaration of this discovery, by H. Middleton for R. Jhones, 1576 (British Library/Granger, NYC—All Rights Reserved); Sir Francis Walsingham, possibly after John De Critz the Elder; based on a work of circa 1587 (© National Portrait Gallery, London); Sir Humphrey Gilbert, by an unknown artist, c.1584 (National Trust Photo Library/Art Resource, NY)
Here: Sir Walter Ralegh (Raleigh), by Nicholas Hilliard, circa 1585 (© National Portrait Gallery, London); WHITE’S DRAWINGS OF INDIANS AT ROANOKE, 1585 [The Flyer, left; Woman and Child, right], Native Indian Conjurer, by Theodor de Bry, in America, after a drawing by John White, 1590 (© The Trustees of the British Museum/Art Resource, NY); An Indian woman and child of Pomeiooc in Virginia, by John White, 1585 (© The Trustees of the British Museum/Art Resource, NY)
Here: Sir Francis Drake, by an unknown artist; circa 1581 (© National Portrait Gallery, London); Elizabeth I, attributed to George Gower, c. 1588 (From The Woburn Abbey Collection); Portrait of Philip II, by Sofonisba Anguissola, 1565 (Wikimedia Commons. Public domain. In the collection of the Prado Museum, Madrid.)
Here: TREATY OF LONDON CEREMONY, 1604, The Somerset House Conference, 19 August 1604, by Juan Pantoja de la Cruz, circa 1604 (© National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, London); Sir Thomas Smythe, by Simon de Passe, John Woodall, 1616 (© National Portrait Gallery, London); King James I of England and VI of Scotland, after John De Critz the Elder, c. 1605 (© National Portrait Gallery, London); Image of John Smith, from A Description of New-England, by an unknown artist, possibly after Simon de Passe, c. 1617 (National Portrait Gallery, Smithsonian Institution); Portrait of Pocahontas, aged 21, by Crispin van de Passe, 1616 (© The Trustees of the British Museum/Art Resource, NY)
Notes
THE PREQUEL TO THE PILGRIMS
1 “Pilgrim Fathers,” Oxford English Dictionary; definition C2.
2 John Stowe and Edmund Howes, Annales, or a General Chronicle of England, begun by John Stow: continued and augmented with matters Forraigne and Domestique, Ancient and Moderne, unto the end of this present yeere (London, 1631), 605.
1. WAXING COLD AND IN DECAY
1 W. K. Jordan, Edward VI. The Young King. The Protectorship of the Duke of Somerset (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1968), 402–3.
2 John Norden cited in Christopher Hibbert, The English: A Social History, 1066–1945 (London: HarperCollins, 1987; paperback, 1994), 173.
3 P. J. Bowden, “Wool Supply and the Woolen Industry,” The Economic History Review, n.s. 9, no. 1 (1956): 44–58; 45.
4 David Loades, England’s Maritime Empire: Seapower, Commerce and Policy, 1490–1690 (London: Longman, 2000), 15–16.
5 Martin Rorke, “English and Scottish Overseas Trade, 1300–1600,” The Economic History Review, n.s., 59, no. 2 (2006): 265–88; 274.
6 Sir Edward Coke (1552–1634), speaking in Parliament in 1621; cited in Nick Bunker, Making Haste from Babylon: The Mayflower Pilgrims and Their World: A New History (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2010), 252.
7 From the records of the Worshipful Company of Woolmen, http://woolmen.com/home/history/.
8 Anne F. Sutton, The Mercery of London: Trade, Goods and People, 1130–1578 (Farnham, Surrey: Ashgate Publishing, 2005), 49; 3–5.
9 John William Burgon, The Life and Times of Sir Thomas Gresham; Compiled Chiefly from His Correspondence Preserved in Her Majesty’s State-Paper Office, 2 vols. (London: Robert Jennings, 1839), 1:5–43; Ian Blanchard, “Sir Thomas Gresham (c. 1518–1579), mercer, merchant adventurer, and founder of the Royal Exchange and Gresham College,” in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford: Oxford University Press, online edition); Ian Blanchard, “Sir Richard Gresham (c.1485–1549), mercer, merchant advengturer and mayor of London,” in ibid.; and William Harrison, The Description of England. The Classic Contemporary Account of Tudor Social Life, ed. Georges Edelen (Washington and New York: Folger Shakespeare Library and Dover Publications, 1994), 132.
10 Burgon, The Life and Times of Sir Thomas Gresham, 1:72.
11 Francesco Guicciardini, Florentine statesman and chronicler, cited in Burgon, The Life and Times of Sir Thomas Gresham, 1:76. Also: S. T. Bindoff, “The Greatness of Antwerp,” in The New Cambridge Modern History. Volume II. The Reformation 1520–1559, ed. G. R. Elton (1958; repr. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975), 50–69.
12 Thomas Smith to William Cecil, July 19, 1549, in Patrick F. Tytler, England Under the Reigns of Edward VI and Mary, 2 vols. (London: Richard Bentley, 1839),
1:185–89; 185.
13 Mary Dewar, Sir Thomas Smith. A Tudor Intellectual in Office (London: Athlone Press, 1964), 29–30 (provost of Eton); 50–51 (case for reform and rejection); 12–13 (Cambridge); 25 (enters Seymour’s household); 32 (becomes Secretary of State).
14 Mary Dewar, ed., A Discourse of the Commonweal of This Realm of England, Attributed to Sir Thomas Smith (Charlottesville: The University Press of Virginia, 1969), 18 (“poverty reigns”), ix (prices), 18–19 (imported goods), 34 (“grieved”).
15 Frederic William Russell, Kett’s Rebellion in Norfolk: Being a History of the Great Civil Commotion that Occurred at the Time of the Reformation, in the Reign of Edward VI (London: Longman, Brown, Green, Longmans, Roberts, and William Penny, 1859), 12.
16 Thomas Tusser cited in Hibbert, The English: A Social History, 172.
17 Dewar, ed., A Discourse of the Commonweal, 49.
18 G. R. Elton, ed., The New Cambridge Modern History. Volume II. The Reformation 1520–1559 (1958; repr. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975), 39.
19 Dewar, ed., A Discourse of the Commonweal, 50.
20 Russell, Kett’s Rebellion, 25.
21 Francis Aidan Gasquet, Henry VIII and the English Monasteries (London: John C. Nimmo, 1899), 360.
22 Burgon, The Life and Times of Sir Thomas Gresham, 2:493; 499–500. In his will, Gresham gave Edward Flowerdew, Sir John’s son, an annuity of forty shillings for his “counselles.”
23 John Walter, “Robert Kett (c.1492–1549), rebel,” Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.
24 Russell, Kett’s Rebellion, 27–28 (“weal,” “misery,” “avarice”); 102 (20,000); 69 (sheep); 48 (grievances); 95 (“common-wealth”).
25 Jordan, Edward VI: The Young King, 487–88.
26 David Loades, John Dudley, Duke of Northumberland 1504–1553 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996); Barret L. Beer, Northumberland: The Political Career of John Dudley, Earl of Warwick and Duke of Northumberland (Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 1973).
27 Jordan, Edward VI: The Young King, 489; Burgon, The Life and Times of Sir Thomas Gresham, 1:100–103.
28 Barrett L. Beer, Rebellion and Riot. Popular Disorder in England during the Reign of Edward VI (Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 1982), 7.
29 Russell, Kett’s Rebellion, 147.
30 Alexander Neville, Norfolkes Furies or a View of Ketts Campe (London: William Stansby for Henry Fetherstone, 1615), 18.
31 Stowe and Howes, Annales, or a General Chronicle of England, 601.
32 Russell, Kett’s Rebellion, 151.
33 Beer, Rebellion and Riot, 7.
34 F. J. Fisher, “Commercial Trends and Policy in Sixteenth-Century England,” The Economic History Review 10, no. 2 (1940): 95–117; 96.
35 Thomas Edge, “A briefe Discoverie of the Northerne Discoveries of Seas, Coasts, and Countries,” in Samuel Purchas, Hakluytus Posthumus or Purchas His Pilgrimes: Contayning a History of the World in Sea Voyages and Lande Travells by Englishmen and Others, 20 vols. (Glasgow: James MacLehose & Sons, the University of Glasgow, 1905–1907), 13:5.
36 G. V. Scammell, The World Encompassed: The First European Maritime Empires, c. 800–1650 (London: Methuen, 1981), 269–70.
37 George Macaulay Trevelyan, Illustrated English Social History, Volume 1: Chaucer’s England and the Early Tudors (London: Longmans and Green, 1949), 33; E. M. Carus-Wilson, “The English Cloth Industry in the Late Twelfth and Early Thirteenth Centuries,” Economic History Review 14, no. 1 (1944): 32–50; 32–33.
38 Stephen Alford, Burghley: William Cecil at the Court of Elizabeth I (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2008), 3–32.
39 Thomas Smith to William Cecil, cited in Dewar, ed., A Discourse of the Commonweal, xxiv.
40 Burgon, The Life and Times of Sir Thomas Gresham, 1:66.
41 “Information of Sir Thomas Gresham, Mercer, towching the fall of the exchaunge, MDLVIII: to the Quenes most excellent maiestye,” in Burgon, The Life and Times of Sir Thomas Gresham, 1:483–86. Gresham’s quotes in the next paragraph are taken from this letter too.
42 Robert Brenner, Merchants and Revolution: Commercial Change, Political Conflict, and London’s Overseas Traders, 1550–1653 (London: Verso, 2003), 7.
43 W. K. Jordan, Edward VI: The Threshold of Power. The Dominance of the Duke of Northumberland (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1970), 482–88.
44 Clement Adams, “The newe Navigation and discoverie of the kingdom of Moscovia, by the Northeast, in the yeere 1553,” in Richard Hakluyt, The Principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffiques & Discoveries of the English Nation, in Twelve Volumes. (Glasgow: James MacLehose and Sons, University of Glasgow, 1903–1905), 2:239–70; 239.
2 . THE LURE OF CATHAY
1 Adams, “The newe Navigation,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 2:239–40.
2 Richard Eden, “A Treatyse of the Newe India, with other new founde lands and ilands,” in Edward Arber, ed., The First Three English Books on America, [?1511]–1555 A.D. (Birmingham, 1885), 6.
3 Stowe and Howes, Annales, or a General Chronicle of England, 609; John Stow, A Survey of London. Reprinted from the text of 1603. With Introduction and Notes by Charles Lethbridge Kingsford, 2 vols., edited by C. L. Kingsford. (Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1908), 1:212.
4 Judde is ranked second, after Cabot, in a contemporary list of merchants involved in the new company: “A letter of M. Henrie Lane to the woshipfull M. William Sanderson, conteining a briefe discourse of that which passed in the North-east discovery for the space of three and thirtie years,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 2:330–36; 331.
5 Thomas More, Utopia, trans. Ralph Robinson, introduction Jenny Mezciems (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1992), 25 (“live idle”); 28 (“your sheep”).
6 David Beers Quinn, England and the Discovery of America, 1481–1620 (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1974), 163–66.
7 John Rastell, “A new interlude and a mery of the nature of the. iiij. Elementes, &c,” in Arber, ed., The First Three English Books on America, xxi.
8 Marco Polo, The Most Noble and Famous Travels of Marco Polo, Together with the Travels of Nicolo di Conti, rev. ed., ed. and trans. John Frampton, with Introduction, Notes, and Appendices by N. M. Penzer (London: Adam and Charles Black, 1937), 64–65, 93–94. Also Donald Beecher, “The Legacy of John Frampton: Elizabethan Trader and Translator,” Renaissance Studies 20, no. 3 (2006), 320–39.
9 For Chinese exploration, see Louise Levathes, When China Ruled the Seas: The Treasure Fleet of the Dragon Throne, 1405–1433 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 87–181.
10 For the state of the world economy in the sixteenth century, see Angus Maddison, The World Economy: A Millennial Perspective (Paris: OECD Publications, 2001), 263.
11 Tamara Chin, “The Invention of the Silk Road, 1877,” Critical Inquiry 40, no. 1 (2013), 194–219; 196–97.
12 Jack Turner, Spice: The History of a Temptation (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2004; Vintage Books, 2005), 5.
13 Ibid., 102–3.
14 “The First Letters Patent Granted To John Cabot and his Sons, 5 March 1496,” in James A. Williamson, The Cabot Voyages and Bristol Discovery Under Henry VII (Cambridge: The University Press, for the Hakluyt Society, 1962), 204–5.
15 J. H. Parry, The Discovery of the Sea (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981), 219.
16 For the Isle of Brasil: see the statement from William Worcestre’s Itinerarium, in Williamson, The Cabot Voyages, 187–88. For the discoverers of Newfoundland: see “The booke made by the right worshipful M. Robert Thorne in the yeere 1527 in Sivil, to Doctour Ley, Lord ambassador for king Henry the eight, to Charles the Emperour…,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 2:164–80; 178.
17 Evan Jones, “The Matthew of Bristol and the Financiers of John Cabot’s 1497 Voyage to North America,” The English Historical Review, 121, no. 492 (2006), 778–95; 781.
18 Legend No. 8, in the map of 1544, transcribed in Charles Raymond Beazley, John and Sebastian
Cabot: The Discovery of North America (London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1898), 222.
19 John Day to the Lord Grand Admiral, n.d., in Williamson, The Cabot Voyages, 211–14.
20 Williamson, The Cabot Voyages, 64 (activities on land); 66–72 (Newfoundland v. Nova Scotia).
21 Lorenzo Pasqualigo to his Brothers at Venice, 23 August 1497, in Williamson, The Cabot Voyages, 207–8.
22 Raimondo de Raimondi de Soncino to the Duke of Milan, 18 December 1497, in Williamson, The Cabot Voyages, 209–11; 210.
23 Williamson, The Cabot Voyages, 103–13.
24 David B. Quinn, Sebastian Cabot and Bristol Exploration, rev. ed. (Bristol: The Bristol Branch of the Historical Association, 1997; original edition 1968), 34.
25 Williamson, The Cabot Voyages, 151, 153, 166–69.
26 “Marcantonio Contarini’s Report on Sebastian Cabot’s Voyage,” in Williamson, The Cabot Voyages, 270.
27 “King Ferdinand to Sebastian Cabot, 13 September 1512,” in Williamson, The Cabot Voyages, 281.
28 Edward L. Stevenson, “The Geographical Activities of the Casa de la Contratación,” Annals of the Association of American Geographers 17, no. 2 (1927): 40.
29 Ibid., 42.
30 “Gasparo Contrarini to the Council of Ten in Venice, 31 December 1522,” in Williamson, The Cabot Voyages, 282–85; Laetitia Lyell, ed., Acts of Court of the Mercers’ Company 1453–1527 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1936), 524–25.
31 Lyell, ed., Acts of Court of the Mercers’ Company, 524–29.
32 Extracts from the Wardens Manuscript Accounts of the Drapers Company of London, From March 1 to April 9, 1521, in Henry Harrisse, The Discovery of North America (London: Henry Stevens and Son, 1892), 747–50.
33 Heather Dalton, Merchants and Explorers: Roger Barlow, Sebastian Cabot, and Networks of Atlantic Exchange, 1500–1560 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016), 76.
34 Alison Sandman and Eric H. Ash, “Trading Expertise: Sebastian Cabot between Spain and England,” Renaissance Quarterly 57, no. 3 (2004): 813–46; 839–40.