135 Richardson, working with the grid overlay: Author's interviews with Tony Richardson, and e-mail, Richardson to author, September 9, 2008. Also see Red Moody interview, November 11, 2006. A detailed explanation of the mathematics behind SEP can be found in Aircraft Salvops Med, Final Report, vol. 2, annex I, part II, chap. 5.
135 Some on the task force had doubts: George Martin interview May 9, 2007; and Letter, John Bruce to Paul Fye, March 9, 1966 (WHOI).
136 “It's important psychologically”: Tony Richardson interview, October 31, 2006.
136 By February 17, they had thoroughly scanned: Aircraft Salvops Med, Final Report, vol. 1, part I, chap. 2, p. 20.
136 At times, Guest moved the submersibles: Author's interviews with Rhodes Boykin, March 16, 2007, and Tony Richardson, October 31, 2007; Memo, W. O. Rainnie to Office of Naval Research, “Quarterly Informal Letter,” June 10, 1966, p. 8.
136 specific grievances began to emerge: Guest's rebuke of Markel comes from Art Markel interview, September 25, 2006.
137 The Alvin crew had its own problems: Brad Mooney interview, March 30, 2007; Kaharl, Water Baby, pp. 67–69.
138 One Navy captain estimated: Letter, Lewis Melson to Adm. Leyton, February 25, 1966 (author's collection).
138 “At first the Thunderball aspects”: Richard Oulahan, “The Case of the Missing H-Bomb,” Life, February 25, 1966, p. 106A.
CHAPTER 11: THE FISHERMAN'S CATCH
139 One Sunday morning in February: The story of Simó's catch comes from author's interviews with Joe Ramirez, January 27, 2007, Red Moody, November 7, 2006, and Oliver Andersen, March 31, 2007; and from Commander Task Group 65.3, memo to Commander Task Force 65, “Report of Inshore Search, Identification and Recovery Unit,” March 13, 1966 (NHC), p. 26. There is some slight disagreement on the date of this incident, but sources agree that it happened sometime around February 10, 1966.
140 A Palomares schoolteacher: SAC Historical Study #109, p. 47.
140 Searchers were ordered to mark: Ibid., p. 99.
140 General Wilson asked the Sandia engineers: Information on the Sandia drop tests (“Operation Sunday”) comes from ibid., pp. 102–105; author's interview with William Caudle, January 22, 2004; and Memo, Robert L. McNeill to William N. Caudle, “Field Observation Operation Sunday,” February 15, 1966 (NNSA).
141 “severely restricted”: Memo, McNeill to Caudle, “Field Observation,” p. 5.
141 Maydew's airburst theory: SAC Historical Study #109, pp. 43–44.
141 Only Larry Messinger showed a positive result: Ibid., p. 44.
141 The Spanish vessel Juan de la Cosa: Ibid., p. 47.
141 Joe Ramirez also found a pharmacist: Joe Ramirez interview, January 27, 2007.
141 “This could only be considered as normal”: SAC Historical Study #109, p. 93.
CHAPTER 12: RADIOACTIVIDAD
143 Colonel White, the man in charge: Flora Lewis interview with Alton “Bud” White, undated (AFHRA), and Szulc, The Bombs of Palomares, pp. 147–149.
143 Dr. Wright Langham, a plutonium expert: The background on Langham is from Szulc, The Bombs of Palomares, pp. 145–147, and Lewis, One of Our H-Bombs, pp. 106–111.
144 Some of the urine samples: The Bombs of Palomares, pp. 153–154; Lewis, One of Our H-Bombs, pp. 109–111; SAC Historical Study #109, pp. 146–148.
144 Langham next tackled crop and animal worries: SAC Historical Study #109, pp. 155–156.
144 The tests, called Operation Roller Coaster: J. Newell Stannard, Radioactivity and Health, A History. Vol. 2: Environmental Aspects (Richland, Wash.: Pacific Northwest Laboratory, 1988), pp. 1193–1197, 1203–1207.
144 the major plutonium hazard had vanished: Paraphrased from Lewis, One of Our H-Bombs, p. 115.
144 He had used himself: Lewis, One of Our H-Bombs, p. 109.
144 “maximum permissible body burden”: Ibid., p. 110.
145 Current limits: E-mail, Andy Karam to author, December 10, 2007.
145 The maximum permissible air concentration: Lewis, One of Our H-Bombs, p.110.
145 an amount akin to a grain of salt: E-mail, Andy Karam to author, December 10, 2007.
145 has a half-life of 24,360 years: SAC Historical Study #109, p. 137.
145 Langham calculated how much soil: The soil remediation plan is discussed in Lewis, One of Our H-Bombs, pp. 115–120; Flora Lewis interview with Alton “Bud” White, undated (AFHRA); SAC Historical Study #109, pp. 160, 165–167, 171–173; and Place et al., Palomares Summary Report (Kirtland Air Force Base, N.M.: Field Command, Defense Nuclear Agency, Technology and Analysis Directorate, January 15, 1975), pp. 64–65. Unfortunately, official records list the contamination levels in counts per minute (CPM), a measurement that varies depending on the sensitivity of the instrument.
146 there had been at least twenty-eight nuclear accidents: “Narrative Summaries of Accidents Involving U.S. Nuclear Weapons 1950–1980,” undated (NNSA, FOIA). Accident summaries are paraphrased from this document.
147 a public debate: For a historical discussion of the nuclear weapons safety issue, see Joel Larus, Nuclear Weapons Safety and the Common Defense (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1967).
147 Even President Kennedy grew worried: Larus, Nuclear Weapons Safety, pp. 32–33.
147 “When Air Force experts rushed”: Quoted in ibid., pp. 93–94.
148 Combat Crew, reflected this zeal: Examples come from the author's reading of Combat Crew.
148 18,340 KC-135 tankers: SAC Historical Study #109, p. 288.
148 a cleanup plan called “Moist Mop”: Ibid., pp. 138–139.
149 Any men plowing, scraping: Ibid., pp. 156–157.
149 Robert Finkel, who spent: Robert Finkel interview, April 4, 2007.
149 The Navy regularly sampled the water: Red Moody interview, November 7, 2006; Commander Task Group 65.3, memo to Commander Task Force 65, “Report of Inshore Search,” March 13, 1966, p. 9.
149 Gaylord White, one of the divers: Gaylord White interview, March 3, 2007.
149 Henry Engelhardt, the commander: Author's interview with Henry “Bud” Engelhardt, May 17, 2006. Also see SAC Historical Study #109, pp. 163 and 165.
150 When Bud White's team first mapped: SAC Historical Study #109, p. 141.
150 The Air Force maintains: Palomares Nuclear Weapons Accident: Revised Dose Evaluation Report, U.S. Department of the Air Force, Air Force Medical Service, April 2001 (FOIA). This report states that some doses measured “unreasonably high” and suggests that more study would be needed to reconcile the data. A press release accompanying this report said that exposures were “not significant.”
150 The vegetation problem: Flora Lewis, interview with Alton “Bud” White, undated (AFHRA); SAC Historical Study #109, pp. 170, 174.
151 This left the question: The soil problem is discussed in Flora Lewis,interview with Alton “Bud” White, undated (AFHRA); author's interview with Jack Howard, April 3, 2007; SAC Historical Study #109, pp. 179–186.
151 Spanish and American officials: The disposal of the aircraft wreckage is discussed in SAC Historical Study #109, pp. 134–136; Aircraft Salvops Med, Interim Report, pp. C6–C7.
151 “lingering recriminations”: SAC Historical Study #109, p. 134.
152 To prepare the dirt: Ibid., p. 173.
152 with lawyers interviewing about twenty people: Ibid., p. 391.
152 The claims work was as complicated: The background on claims comes from Joe Ramirez interviews, January 27, 2007, and April 27, 2007; and SAC Historical Study #109, chapter 7.
152 when lawyers consulted the owners' registry: SAC Historical Study #109, p. 397.
152 Four claimants: Ibid., p. 389, footnote.
MARCH
CHAPTER 13: SPIN CONTROL
155 Ambassador Duke stood: The description of Duke's solo swim and the quotes are from “US Envoy Swims in Mediterranean,” CBS News, March 9, 1966.
156 the U.S. government had finally admitted: SAC Historical Study #109, pp. 327�
�329; the text of the DOD press release is on p. 328. See also John W. Finney, “U.S. Concedes Loss of H-Bomb in Spain,” The New York Times, March 3, 1966, p. 1.
156 For weeks, the U.S. and Spanish governments: Arguments over the release of information are discussed in SAC Historical Study #109, pp. 324–326, and Szulc, The Bombs of Palomares, pp. 202–204.
157 various government agencies began stumbling: SAC Historical Study #109, p. 329.
157 “The news is now official”: “The Missing H-Bomb,” The Boston Globe, March 4, 1966, p. 14.
157 “One U.S. official insisted”: “Swimming Party,” Newsweek, March 14, 1966, p. 59.
157 Together, Ambassador Duke and Manuel Fraga Iribarne: Sources differ over who actually came up with the idea for the swim. In an oral history, Duke said the idea was his and Fraga agreed to the plan reluctantly, thinking it undignified for a government official to splash around in bathing trunks. General Spanish opinion holds that the idea was Fraga's and Duke finally agreed only to avoid being shown up. In recent interviews, Fraga and Robin Duke say the idea was mutual. They also said that it was mutually agreed that Robin Duke not swim, to avoid the spectacle of an ambassador's wife in a bikini. Interestingly, a famous Spanish newsreel of the event shows only Fraga, with a brief appearance by Ambassador Duke at the very end. (This newsreel forms most Spaniards' collective memory of the entire Palomares saga.) American papers discussed mainly Duke, with only rare mentions of Fraga. Sources: Angier Biddle Duke, Living History interview, October 24, 1990 (Duke), pp. 18–20; author's interviews with Manuel Fraga Iribarne, February 15, 2007, and Robin Duke, June 7, 2007; and Noticias NO-DO 1210 B, (Filmoteca Española), undated.
157 “If I could take my children”: Angier Biddle Duke, Living History interview, October 24, 1990, p. 18.
157 “aquatic diplomacy”: The Kalb quotes come from “US Envoy Swims in Mediterranean,” CBS News, March 9, 1966.
157 Something went awry: The story of the second swim comes primarily from author's interview with Timothy Towell, January 8, 2007, and Szulc, The Bombs of Palomares, p. 204. Fraga denies this version of events, though without much vigor (interview, February 15, 2007). He says that everything went off as planned and that the two men swam together. However, Towell's story is corroborated by Red Moody as well as footage of the second swim, which shows Duke entering the water after Fraga.
158 “The humble of Palomares”: Signs quoted in “Officials Take Cold Dip to Deny H-Bomb Hazard,” The Washington Post, March 9, 1966.
158 “It was with confidence and pleasure”: Angier Biddle Duke, radio interview with Jay Rutherfurd (Duke).
159 An Associated Press photo: Tad Szulc, “U.S. Envoy Swims Where H-Bomb Fell,” The New York Times, March 9, 1966, p. 1.
159 “We think of our diplomats”: The Dallas Morning News, March 12, 1966 (Angier Biddle Duke Papers, Palomares Scrapbook, Duke).
159 “Duke's ‘Swim-in’”: Jay Rutherfurd, “Duke's ‘Swim-in’ for Spanish Tourism Best Water Show since Aquacade,” Variety, March 16, 1966, p. 2.
159 “I'm glad your bathing suit”: Letter, Jack Valenti to Angier Biddle Duke, March 9, 1966 (LBJ).
160 “How happy I was”: Letter, Jacqueline Kennedy to Angier Biddle Duke, March 12, 1966 (Duke).
160 “I trust that excessive swimming”: Letter, Arthur Schlesinger, Jr., to Angier Biddle Duke, March 15, 1966 (Duke).
160 “I can understand our Government's desire”: Letter, Nathan Arrow to Angier Biddle Duke, March 11, 1966 (Duke).
161 “Feel safer already?”: “Swimming Party,” p. 59.
161 “Supposing a bomb is reported missing”: Quoted in Szulc, The Bombs of Palomares, p. 212.
161 The Moscow publication Izvestia: SAC Historical Study #109, p. 361.
161 “For many years”: “The Missing H-Bomb,” The Boston Globe, March 4, 1966, p. 14.
161 Curtis LeMay added his two cents: “Air Force Gen. Curtis LeMay on Missing Bomb,” CBS News, March 12, 1966.
162 The Navy requested: SAC Historical Study #109, pp. 184–185. 162 “in line with the spirit”: Ibid., p. 185.
162 Wilson apologized: Delmar E. Wilson, speech to residents of Palomares and Villaricos, March 20, 1966 (USAF, FOIA).
163 On March 24, men moved: SAC Historical Study #109, p. 188. 163 A second team of ballistics experts: Ibid., p. 50.
163 “By 1 March”: Ibid.
163 With regard to the water search: “Addendum to SAT Study of 7 February 1966,” March 4, 1966 (NNSA); SAC Historical Study #109, pp. 51–53.
163 The Sandia engineer Bill Barton: Memo, Maydew and Barton to Fowler, “Chronological Summary,” March 29, 1966, p. 3.
163 the secretary of defense authorized: Aircraft Salvops Med, Final Report, vol. 1, part I, chap. 2, p. 55.
163 Cyrus Vance created a “Search Evaluation Board”: The background on the Search Evaluation Board is from ibid., pp. 55–56, and author's interview with Robert Sproull, May 11, 2007. The Sproull quotes are from this interview.
164 In anticipation of the next meeting: Aircraft Salvops Med, Final Report, vol. 1, part I, chap. 2, p. 56.
CHAPTER 14: THE PHOTOGRAPH
165 On the morning of March 1: The story of Alvin's move to search area C4 is from Marvin J. McCamis, “‘Captain Hook's’ Hunt for the H-Bomb,” Oceanus 31, no. 4 (Winter 1988–89), p. 24. There is some dispute about whether McCamis sneaked Alvin into C4, as he contends, or was assigned to dive there. Navy Captain Lewis Melson said that he and others met with Guest on February 28 and proposed sending Alvin into C4, and Guest agreed to the plan (see memo from Lewis Melson, “WHOI's OCEANUS WINTER 1988/1989 issue extract for 1 March 1966” [author's collection]). However, the deck logs of the Fort Snelling for March 1 say that Alvin was launched to search area B29, lending credence to McCamis's version of events. Also, such an antiauthoritarian scheme seems in character for McCamis. Long time Alvin pilot Barrie Walden said, “McCamis, in my opinion, would be more likely to try something that was a little more outrageous than another pilot, in order to get the job done during the dive.” (Author's interview with Barrie Walden, July 25, 2006.)
165 Bill Rainnie and Val Wilson: Alvin dive log, Dive 119, March 1, 1966. Alvin's dive logs are available at www.whoi.edu/page.do?pid=11039.
165 Andrews had asked Earl Hays: Frank Andrews interview, November 10, 2006.
166 Rainnie and Wilson vented Alvin's ballast: The description of Alvin diving comes from the author's visit to Alvin and interviews with Robert Brown and Bruce Strickrott, July 2, 2007.
166 the visibility near the bottom: Victoria Kaharl, Water Baby: The Story of Alvin (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), p. 66; William O. Rainnie, “How We Found the Missing H-Bomb,” Popular Mechanics, August 1966, pp. 75–76.
166 In order to steer a straight line: Marvin McCamis intervew, January 31, 2003.
166 “a straight line in a snowstorm”: Ibid.
166 the bottom stretched before them: Rainnie, “How We Found the Missing H-Bomb,” p. 76.
166 Alvin was “flying a contour”: Frank Andrews interview, November 10, 2006.
167 Mac McCamis, however, had lost patience: McCamis, “‘Captain Hook's’ Hunt,” p. 24.
167 “Wait a minute, I see something”: Rainnie and Wilson's dialogue is quoted in Kaharl, Water Baby, p. 69. The Alvin pilots regularly recorded their dives on reel-to-reel audiotape. However, the tapes of certain critical dives, including this one, are missing from the WHOI archives.
167 the pilots handed off their film: McCamis, “‘Captain Hook's’ Hunt,” p. 24.
167 “like a barrel had been dragged”: Marvin McCamis interview, January 31, 2003.
167 “To me, it looked like”: Brad Mooney interview, March 30, 2007.
167 the Alvin crew returned: McCamis, “‘Captain Hook's’ Hunt,” p. 24; deck logs of the USS Fort Snelling, March 3–7, 1966 (NARA).
167 the task force suddenly yanked: McCamis, “‘Captain Hook's’ Hunt,” p. 24; Tony Richardson interview, Octobe
r 31, 2007; Memo, W. O. Rainnie to Office of Naval Research, “Quarterly Informal Letter,” June 10, 1966, p. 8; Alvin dive logs, Dive 124, March 8, 1966, and Dive 125, March 9, 1966; Deck Logs of the USS Fort Snelling, March 8–9, 1966 (NARA).
168 “My turn at surface control”: McCamis, “‘Captain Hook's’ Hunt,” p. 24.
168 made nine runs over a dummy: Aircraft Salvops Med, Final Report, vol. 1, part I, chap. 2, p. 44.
168 On March 12, an OBSS: Ibid.
168 The divers had wrapped up: Red Moody interview, November 7, 2006; e-mail, Moody to author, December 19, 2007.
168 Duke wrote to Jack Valenti: Letter, Angier Biddle Duke to Jack Valenti, March 14, 1966 (LBJ).
169 Tony Richardson, the baby-faced mathematician: The details of Richardson's actions on March 15, 1966, come from Tony Richardson, diary, March 15 to April 7, 1966 (author's collection), and Tony Richardson interview, October 31, 2007.
169 “Paco de la Bomba”: Lewis, One of Our H-Bombs, p. 194.
170 His response to the Cyrus Vance committee: Aircraft Salvops Med, Final Report, February 15, 1967, vol. 1, part I, chap. 2, pp. 56–59.
170 They were supposed to get a new transponder: Ibid., pp. 53–54; author's interview with Brad Mooney, March 30, 2007.
The Day We Lost the H-Bomb: Cold War, Hot Nukes, and the Worst Nuclear Weapons Disaster in History Page 33