362.What one presumes is pleasure
is actually a reduction in pain;
likewise, the suppression of pleasure
is what one presumes to be pain.
Refuting Inherently Existent Pain
We crave happiness and pleasure, and crave to be free of suffering and pain. The inherent existence of the nature of the happiness that we crave to have as well as the reasons proving it to be inherently existent have been refuted. Similarly, the inherent existence of suffering and the reasons supporting it have been disproved.
When suffering diminishes there is the appearance of pleasure, and we conceive “pleasure.” We think “pleasure” because suffering has decreased. Similarly, when pleasure diminishes there is the appearance of discomfort and we think, “This is pain,”34 and apprehend that pain as inherently existent. The consciousness apprehending pain as inherently existent is a wrong consciousness; pain is not inherently existent, because if it were, it would arise independent of everything else. In fact, pain arises dependent on other factors. Pain is also posited in relation to pleasure — the two are mutually dependent. Thus, because pain is dependent, it is not real in the sense of not being inherently existent.
However, this does not mean that there is no real pain in cyclic existence, where real means “genuine.” It’s important not to confuse the two meanings of real: one is “inherently existent,” the other is “genuine” or “actual.” Happiness in cyclic existence is not real in either sense — it is not inherently existent, and it is not genuine happiness because it is simply the reduction of pain. In addition, continued contact with a pleasurable object will eventually turn into pain; it will never be continually pleasurable.
Suffering and pain are not real in the sense of being inherently existent. However, they are real in the sense of being genuine pain, in that continued contact with an object that causes pain will not turn into pleasure. We do not need to make special effort to experience pain — it comes to us automatically in cyclic existence — whereas we do need to make great effort to experience happiness and pleasure, though even then it’s not certain we’ll attain them.
363.Since they are essenceless,
one eliminates the craving to obtain pleasure
and the craving to avoid pain.
Those who see thus attain liberation thereby.
Liberation Comes from Realizing Emptiness
This verse speaks of two types of craving, one that craves to meet with the object of pleasure, and one that craves to be separated from the object of pain. Both are forms of attachment and arise dependent on pleasurable or painful feelings, respectively. These feelings, in turn, arise dependent on the object, sense faculty, sense consciousness, previous karma, attention, and so forth. None of these exist from their own side.
Realizing and meditating on the meaning of emptiness and dependent arising enables us to abandon these two cravings that arise in response to the two types of feeling. Those who see the emptiness of feelings and abandon the two types of craving for them will attain liberation. The wisdom realizing the meaning of emptiness and dependent arising will liberate us from cyclic existence.
Although ignorance is the fundamental root of cyclic existence, craving, clinging, and other forms of attachment are also powerful causes. Motivated by ignorance, polluted karma is created. Craving and clinging — the eighth and ninth of the twelve links of dependent arising — nourish that karma, so that it propels the next life. To overcome ignorance, craving, and clinging, we must exert ourselves to realize emptiness and dependent arising free of all conceptual elaborations, and to see them as mutually supportive.
364.“But who does this seeing?” Conventionally, the mind is said to do so.
But without mental factors, there is no mind.
Since [the mind] is unreal, we do not accept
that [two moments of mind] can be simultaneous.
Identifying the Subject, the Mind Cognizing Emptiness
Not only do external objects, the person, and even emptiness lack inherent existence, Nagarjuna now shows that the mind perceiving emptiness is also empty.
Someone queries, “Who sees this reality?” Conventionally, the mind sees this reality. While its object, emptiness, is an ultimate truth, the mind realizing emptiness is a conventional truth. The aryas’ meditative equipoise on emptiness, to which all dualistic appearances have subsided, arises and disintegrates moment by moment. As a consciousness, it is an impermanent phenomenon. The wisdom realizing emptiness is a mental factor that accompanies the primary mental consciousness realizing emptiness. This primary mental consciousness and the wisdom accompanying it exist simultaneously and are mutually dependent. If one is missing, the other also isn’t present. Both are empty of inherent existence, yet exist by being merely designated in dependence on their respective bases of designation.
The mind realizing emptiness does not see itself, just as the tip of a finger cannot touch itself and a knife cannot cut itself. Emptiness appears to this mind, but that mind itself — the aryas’ meditative equipoise on emptiness — does not appear to the perspective of this mind realizing emptiness. Only emptiness appears to it. To observe itself, that wisdom would have to exist under its own power, independent of all other things. In that case, it would be inherently existent, and that doesn’t make any sense at all! Therefore, two moments of mind, in which one realizes the other, can’t occur simultaneously. They must be sequential.
Not Seeing Is the Highest Seeing
A sutra says that not seeing anything at all is seeing the meaning of emptiness. This means that when we examine how a phenomenon exists by looking for the designated object in the basis of designation, not finding anything truly existent is seeing emptiness. In other words, when we look for a truly existent object, we don’t see anything that is truly existent.
Some people misinterpret this sutra passage to mean that not seeing anything at all is the meaning of seeing ultimate reality. They then wonder what is the use of seeing reality if you don’t see anything.
A sutra also says that not seeing is the highest seeing; it is holy seeing. This means that when we search for the final mode of existence of phenomena and do not see true existence, then we see the actual mode of existence, suchness — the absence of true existence. To see this is holy; it is the highest seeing. Somebody then questions, “First you said ‘not seeing anything’ is the ultimate truth, and now you say ‘seeing suchness’ is the ultimate truth. That sounds contradictory.”
We see no contradiction because “not seeing anything at all” means not seeing true existence. That is, true existence — the object of negation — is not seen by the arya’s meditative equipoise on reality. “Seeing suchness” means seeing the actual mode of existence, seeing emptiness. So what is seen — emptiness — and what is not seen — true existence — are different.
However, some people mistakenly think that “not seeing anything at all” means not seeing any phenomenon in general — as opposed to our understanding that it refers to not seeing anything that is truly existent. That leads them to say that when the arya’s wisdom of meditative equipoise sees emptiness, it does not see any phenomena, and they conclude that nothing at all exists — neither conventional nor ultimate truths. In that case, the mind realizing reality itself would not exist. If the mind did not exist, when all obscurations are eliminated the mind itself would be eliminated. Such an assertion is the extreme of nihilism and is similar to the non-Buddhists’ view. This fault follows from misunderstanding these sutra passages.
365.Having properly realized that in this way
beings are actually unreal, having no basis [for rebirth],
or any appropriation [of new aggregates],
one attains nirvana like a fire whose causes have ceased.
Attaining Nirvana Requires the Realization of Emptiness
When we have correctly realized that sentient beings are actually unreal — that they lack true existence — we realize that the
conceived object of the true-grasping mind does not exist. We also understand that the mind grasping sentient beings as truly existent is an erroneous mind. Meditating on emptiness repeatedly over time brings about the gradual cessation of true-grasping, and as a result, the craving that leads to rebirth in cyclic existence ceases. Like a fire that is extinguished through lack of fuel, cyclic existence ceases through the lack of its cause, true-grasping ignorance, and the person attains liberation.
According to the Prasangikas, fundamental vehicle arhats have also realized the emptiness of true existence of persons and phenomena, because it is impossible to attain liberation without directly perceiving this emptiness. They cite many definitive sutras establishing that those practicing the hearer, solitary realizer, and bodhisattva vehicles all attain their own awakening by meditating on subtle emptiness. For example, in the perfection of wisdom sutras, the Buddha stated that somebody who wants to train in the stages of any of the three vehicles has to train in the perfection of wisdom.
This is a unique assertion of the Prasangika philosophers, who cite passages in the fundamental vehicle sutras in which the Buddha teaches subtle emptiness in order to show that hearers and solitary realizers do indeed meditate on it. A Ball of Foam Sutta (Phenapindupama Sutta) says:
Forms are like balls of foam,
Feelings like water bubbles;
Discriminations like a mirage,
Volitional factors like a plantain trunk,
and consciousnesses like illusions.
So explained the Kinsman of the Sun.
While the Svatantrikas and below have their own interpretations of this passage, Prasangikas say that through these analogies, the Buddha — the Kinsman of the Sun — explained that the aggregates also lack true existence.
Someone says, “This advice in the fundamental vehicle sutras was not to show the hearers and solitary realizers that they have to realize non-true existence to gain liberation, but to show that bodhisattvas have to realize non-true existence to gain awakening.” Prasangikas respond that this not the case, since the Buddha gave advice separately to the bodhisattvas. In the same scripture, it says, “Just like that, in order for the bodhisattvas to attain liberation, they also have to realize emptiness.” By saying, “also,” the Buddha indicates that in addition to the hearers and solitary realizers needing to realize emptiness, the bodhisattvas do too.
366.Bodhisattvas, having also had this realization,
become firmly intent upon awakening.
It is due to just their compassion
that they continue to take rebirth until awakening.
Somebody wonders, “Is there any difference between practitioners of the universal vehicle and those of the fundamental vehicle, since both have to realize emptiness to attain awakening?”
When they train in wisdom, bodhisattvas’ meditation on emptiness has to be supported by the vast method side of compassion, bodhichitta, unshakable resolve, and dedication. The fundamental vehicle teachings do not say that the practice of hearers and solitary realizers must be supported in this way. Following the bodhisattva path requires not only gaining the realization of subtle emptiness but also the firm aspiration to attain full awakening for the benefit of all sentient beings and the collection of merit supported by bodhichitta.
Somebody says, “You say that bodhisattvas realize emptiness and through that eliminate the attachment, anger, and ignorance that cause rebirth in cyclic existence. If they no longer have the cause for rebirth in cyclic existence in their mindstreams, it is not correct to say that they stay in cyclic existence for a long time for the sake of others.”
Lower-level bodhisattvas, who have not yet realized emptiness directly and nonconceptually, still take rebirth in cyclic existence under the influence of afflictions and karma. However, arya bodhisattvas continue to take births until awakening due to their compassion and wish to benefit sentient beings. They are not born in cyclic existence by the force of afflictions and polluted karma like ordinary beings are, but by the force of their compassion, unshakable resolve, and unpolluted karma.35
CORRECTLY UNDERSTANDING THE UNIVERSAL VEHICLE
While hearers, solitary realizers, and bodhisattvas all realize the same subtle emptiness, they differ in terms of the collections of merit and wisdom. Only bodhisattvas have the actual two collections, because the collections must be amassed with the motivation of bodhichitta. Not all creation of merit is the collection of merit.
In the following verses Nagarjuna speaks of the unique practice and benefits of the universal vehicle and confirms that there is one final vehicle. That is, although the Buddha taught the three vehicles of the hearers, solitary realizers, and bodhisattvas, everyone will eventually enter the bodhisattva vehicle and become fully awakened buddhas.
367.The Tathagata taught
the bodhisattvas’ collections in the universal vehicle.
But it is derided by those
who are confused and antagonistic.
The Universal Vehicle Is Disparaged by Those Who Are Confused
In the universal vehicle teachings, the Buddha extensively explained the necessity for bodhisattvas to train in the two vast collections of merit and wisdom in order to attain full awakening. Upon hearing those teachings some beings, due to their confusion and ignorance, became antagonistic and disparaged the universal vehicle.
Some people hold incorrect ideas concerning Mahayana, the universal vehicle. Because it was not practiced publicly at the time of Buddha, some people think it is not derived from the Buddha’s words. Others are skittish about it because it necessitates practicing for three countless great eons to attain full awakening, and because bodhisattvas have to stay in cyclic existence in order to benefit sentient beings. In the ensuing verses Nagarjuna clears up misconceptions and encourages people to follow the universal vehicle, helping them recognize that it is the source of all happiness and benefit in the world.
368.Those who deride the universal vehicle
either cannot distinguish good qualities from faults,
or they mistake good qualities for faults,
or else they despise good qualities.
369.What harms others are faults;
what helps them are good qualities;
recognizing this, it is said that
those who deride the universal vehicle dislike good qualities.
The Reasons They Disparage It
Bodhisattvas practice giving up their own welfare and striving for the welfare of others. It is hard to see why people would not admire that. Nagarjuna presents three reasons why they wouldn’t. First, they cannot distinguish good qualities from faults: they do not see working for the welfare of all sentient beings as a good quality and seeking only one’s own liberation as a shortcoming. Second, they mistake good qualities for faults: they see relinquishing working for your own welfare and striving for others’ benefit as a fault. Third, they have spontaneous dislike for the qualities of the universal vehicle. This could be because they lack imprints from previous lives that would make them appreciate the universal vehicle.
Some people know that harming others is a fault and helping them is a good quality, yet they still criticize the universal vehicle teachings. The universal vehicle scriptures contain the practice of the bodhisattva path in its entirety. While the fundamental vehicle scriptures contain the same points, they are only explained briefly. For example, love and compassion are discussed in the fundamental vehicle scriptures but are not explained fully. Other topics, such as the practice of unshakable resolve, which is essential for the bodhisattva path, is hard to find in the fundamental vehicle scriptures because they focus principally on the path to arhatship.
The Buddha taught the universal vehicle sutras during his lifetime, but they were not widely disseminated at that time. Although they were practiced quietly at certain monasteries or in private, many people did not know these teachings were the Buddha’s word and thus criticized them.
370.By being unconcerned abo
ut one’s own aims,
one takes delight uniquely in the aims of others —
this source of all good qualities is [the teaching of] the universal vehicle.
Hence, one who disparages it is tormented.
371.Even a faithful person suffers due to misunderstanding it;
someone else who is hostile suffers due to animosity.
If it is said that even the faithful person is tormented,
what about the one who is hostile?
The Faults of Disparaging the Universal Vehicle
Relinquishing working for our own welfare alone and striving one-pointedly to make others happy is the source of all peace and happiness in this and future lives. Disparaging this wondrous attitude and behavior is extremely destructive and propels someone into rebirth in the hell of unceasing torment after death.
Two kinds of people are hostile toward the universal vehicle. The first are those who have faith in emptiness and want to realize it, but don’t know how to think about it properly. As a result they mistakenly think emptiness means that nothing whatsoever exists, and they dislike the universal vehicle for that reason. The second are actively hostile toward the universal vehicle because they bear enmity toward teachings on emptiness or they object to teachings that encourage us to give up working for our own benefit in favor of others.
If even those who have faith but think wrongly will be tormented in the hell realms, what need is there to speak about the result of bearing genuine animosity toward the universal vehicle? Since we wish to have happiness and attain nirvana, it’s important to be careful not to deny emptiness or to denigrate altruism.
372.Physicians say that poison
may be eliminated with poison.
So how is it contradictory to say that
suffering may eliminate something unhelpful?
It’s Appropriate to Experience a Little Suffering to Eliminate Great Duhkha
The second type of person above dislikes the universal vehicle because it encourages giving up self-concern and working for the benefit of others. The idea of giving away their body, eyes, head, arms, and legs frightens such people so much that they can’t tolerate it and get angry.36 They think that it’s right to dislike the universal vehicle because it advocates giving away our body as well as our spouse, children, and possessions. From their perspective, that is asking too much.
Practical Ethics and Profound Emptiness Page 34