by Lori Peek
eurasia, 109
(CAir); hijab; muslim Americans
europe: eastern, 10; Western, 108, 109
Hartford institute for religious research, 10
european monitoring Center on racism and
Hasan, Waqar, 29, 190n56
Xenophobia, 190n51
hate crimes: anti-islamic, in 2000, 28, 58; fears
evangelical leaders, 5, 46, 66, 173, 181n5,
and anxieties relating to, 113, 114; hotline,
181–182n6
27; after 9/11, 6, 8, 28, 29, 30, 31–32, 63,
Everlasting Hatred, The (lindsey), 5
168, 190n51; and the 1993 World Trade
Center bombing, 167; numbers of, between
family: conflict within, 4, 50, 105, 130–137,
1995 and 2008, 30, 30f; and the Oklahoma
140, 152; as source of support for muslims;
City bombing, 110, 115, 165; reason for
3, 62, 109–110, 116, 130, 151–152
decrease in, 190–191n63; recorded by the
FBi: and Arab Americans after the munich
FBi, 28, 30f, 30–31, 58, 95, 97, 168, 190n51;
massacre, 15; authorized to spy on domes-
underreporting of, 30–31, 58, 97; following
tic groups, 33; and bin laden, 112; and
U.s. invasions of Afghanistan and iraq, 138;
foreign students and faculty, 90; and hate
and visible membership in a marginalized
crimes, 28, 30f, 30–31, 58, 95, 97, 168,
group, 63
190n51; middle eastern and south Asian
Hate Free Zone, 26
men interviewed by, 34, 91, 93–94; and the
hate stares, 72–74
9/11 terrorists, 113; and the Oklahoma City
headscarf. See hijab
bombing, 24; retaliatory murders pros-
Herman, Judith, 178
ecuted by, 97; and the Total information
hijab, 42; and airport profiling, 93; debate
Awareness system, 75; undercover agents of,
regarding, 131–135, 152, 155, 158; and
in mosques, 136, 162
discrimination, 63, 79–80, 82, 85, 171; and
Feagin, Joe, 65, 130
harassment, 54, 56–58, 65, 68, 103, 115; and
210 / Index
hijab (continued)
mentalism, 32, 169; growth of, in the United
hostile looks, 71–72, 74, 111, 115; miscon-
states, 10; ignorance about, 1, 14, 43–47,
ceptions about wearers of, 48, 49–50; and
56, 148, 168, 169; media presentations of
religious commitment, 4, 49, 160, 201n28;
( see under media); obstacles to practicing,
scarves for solidarity campaign, 26; and
42–43; perceived as foreign religion, 47, 51;
self-identification as a muslim, 4, 119, 122,
practiced by muslim Americans, 12–13,
126–127, 160, 161–162; as vehicle for edu-
145–150, 156–162, 163; prayers required
cating non-muslims, 159
in, 2, 42–43, 148; pre-9/11 hostilities and
Hinduism, 169
prejudice toward, 168–170; prohibitions in,
Hindus, 54, 64, 168
25–26, 40, 42; propaganda against, 5–6, 46,
Hispanic Americans, 12, 170
181n5 ( see also under media); radical, 108;
Hitler, Adolf, 6, 117
scholars of, 36; stereotypes about ( see ste-
Holt, rush, 190n56
reotyping); terrorism prohibited by, 25–26;
home, 130; as haven for African Americans,
as transnational multiethnic religion, 44, 51,
130; for muslim Americans after 9/11,
100; women as viewed in, 45
130–137, 140, 152
islamic Circle of north America, 13
homicides, 97, 168
Islamic Invasion: Confronting the World’s
Human rights Watch, 32
Fastest Growing Religion, The (morey), 46
Hussayen, sami al-, 34
islamic organizations, 24–25, 174, 189n40
Hussein, saddam, 55
islamic revolution, 108
islamic society of north America, 13
identity: changes to religious identity after
Islam in America (smith), 143
9/11, 145–150, 158–162, 163; among muslim islamophobia, 36, 64, 108
Americans 16, 37, 145–150, 163; symbols of,
israel, 54–55, 197n17
63, 98, 130–135, 141, 158–162, 163, 171–172, issa, Darrell, 31
203n45
italy, 15
imam’s Council of new york, 149
immigrants, 14–16, 47, 48, 67
Japan, 15
immigration, 171; moratorium, 66; policy,
Japanese Americans, 15, 92
10–11
Jewish Americans, 12, 55, 170
immigration and nationality Act of 1965,
Jews, 168, 171, 173
10–11, 171
jihad, 88, 148, 194n4
immigration and naturalization service, 9, 34,
Jordan, 10, 185n42, 192n85
192n85
Judaism, 169
india, 11, 29, 45
indonesia, 11, 90, 192n85
Kalkan, Kerem Ozan, 168
informants participating in study, 7–9,
Kaplan, Jeffrey, 170, 190–191n63
182nn17–19; age of, 36, 53; education of, 7,
Khatami, president mohammad, 25
182n17. See also fieldwork
King, peter, 75
initiative to Combat post-9/11 Discriminatory
Kirsanow, peter, 92
Backlash, 27
Kroll-smith, stephen, 166
internment camps, 15, 92, 118–119
kufi, 159, 171
interviewees. See informants participating in
Kutak, robert i., 21
study
Kuwait, 23, 185n42, 192n85
invalidated collective grief, 175, 178
iran, 15, 25, 108, 192n85; hostage crisis, 23
language: Arabic, 11, 46, 185n42; Farsi, 3,
iraq, 23, 185n42, 192n85; U.s. war with, 32, 55,
194n4; of informants participating in study,
138, 173, 190–191n63
7, 39
islam: associated with violence and terrorism,
latin America, 108, 109
13–14, 53, 63, 88–89, 108, 156, 168, 169, 173; latinos, 28, 31, 64
author’s introduction to, 2; converts among,
league of Arab states, 185n42
9, 10, 37, 136–137; educating non-muslims
lebanon, 10, 167, 185n42, 192n85; and 9/11,
about, 148, 152, 157–158, 160; and funda-
197n17; and terrorism, 23, 187n4
Index / 211
libya, 23, 185n42, 192n85
mosques, 58, 70; FBi undercover agents in,
lind, William s., 67
136, 162; after 9/11, 114, 149, 170; as target
lindsey, Hal, 5
for hate crimes, 58, 98, 115, 167
Living with Racism (Feagin and sikes), 130
msA. See muslim students Association
looks: apprehensive, 76–77; hostile, 71–72. See
muhammad, 5, 46, 56, 143, 148
also stares
munich massacre, 15
los Angeles, 12, 29
muslim Americans, 11–13; attempts by, to
los Angeles international Airport, 20
educate public about islam, 13, 26, 148, 152,
157–158, 159, 160, 172, 190–191n63; back-
madrid, spain, train bombings, 34
lash anticipated by, 23, 24; behavior and
markers of difference, 171–172; defined, 63.
communica
tion of, modified by 9/11, 116,
See also identity
119–120; under continuous attack, 137–139;
mattson, ingrid, 25–26
converts among, 9, 10, 37, 136–137; and
mauritania, 185n42
different response trajectory to 9/11, 105,
mayfield, Brandon, 34
107–108, 114–115; diversity and differences
mcveigh, Timothy, 24, 110, 165
among, 11, 142, 143; efforts of, to dem-
Mecca and Main Street (Abdo), 155
onstrate loyalty to the United states, 190–
media: and anti-muslim hate crimes following
191n63; fear and avoidance experienced by,
the Oklahoma City bombing, 24; Arabs and
9, 113–122, 140; hate crimes against, prior
muslims portrayed in the context of violence
to 9/11, 23, 24; hostility and harassment of,
by, 13, 54, 55, 59, 169; bigotry and suspicion
prior to 9/11, 1, 16, 36, 37, 53–58, 59, 175f;
promoted by, 119; and early speculation
immigrants among, 37; initial responses of,
about the perpetrators of 9/11, 110–111; and
to 9/11, 105–108; interviewed by author ( see
fatality estimation, 112, 197n18; loyalty and
informants participating in study); isola-
assimilability of muslim Americans ques-
tion and exclusion experienced by, 1, 35,
tioned by, 66–67; and muslim American
123–129; mainstream attitudes and values
population, 10, 66; muslim American reac-
held by, 40–41, 42, 170; muslim American
tion to defamation by, 118–119; muslim
women ( see women, muslim American); as
Americans underrepresented in, 173;
perpetual foreigners, 47–48, 66; population
muslims accused of silence after 9/11 by,
of, 9–10, 12, 37, 172; pre-9/11 hostilities and
189n40; muslim women portrayed by,
prejudice toward, 168–170; public defense
50–51, 52; negative portrayals of islam and
of, 26; race and geographic origin of, 8,
muslims by, 13, 36, 51, 52, 75, 117–118, 119,
9, 11, 12; reactions of, to malicious media
138, 143, 146, 155, 167, 168, 173; and the
commentary, 118–119; relative powerless-
real-time impact of terrorism, 109, 197n13;
ness of, 172–174, 175f; responses of, to
reporting on the backlash by, 116–117;
backlash, 16, 118–119, 140–141; as scape-
United states depicted by, after 9/11, 145
goats of 9/11, 164, 167, 171; seeking refuge
Mein Kampf (Hitler), 6
in Canada, 34; solidarity among, 141–144,
merton, robert, 6
151–155, 163, 199–200n11; terrorism
middle east, 32, 108
condemned by, 24–26, 189n40; treatment
middle easterners, 8, 24
of, fol owing the explosion of TWA Flight
Militant Islam Reaches America (pipes), 6
800, 24; underrepresented in politics, 173,
military Commissions Act, 33
174; viewed by the public as facing more
minorities: amplification of symbols of identity
discrimination than other religious groups,
by, 161; and city streets, 65; on college cam-
172; and visibility, 158–162, 163, 168, 170–
puses, 86; declining prejudice against, 170;
172, 175f, 203n45
demonized during wartime, 14–16; solidar-
muslim public Affairs Council, 25, 174
ity among, 141
muslims, 10, 11; associated with terrorism, 158,
misconceptions, 43, 44
169; backlash experienced by, 5–6, 190n51;
moody, Jim, 157
ignorance about, 168, 169; negative media
moon god, 14, 46
representations of, 13, 36; prejudice against,
morey, robert, 46
13–14, 15–16, 170; south Asian, 45; targeted
morocco, 185n42, 192n85
by the U.s. government, 170; term as used by
212 / Index
muslims (continued)
Organization of islamic Conferences, 25
the media, 11, 184n39; as transnational
Ottoman empire, 10
multiethnic religious community, 44, 63
muslims Against Terrorism, 26
paige, rod, 27
muslims in the American public square proj-
pakistan, 3, 11, 45, 90, 192n85
ect, 172
pakistani Americans, 174
muslim students Association (msA): and
palestine, 10, 25, 55, 185n42, 197n17
attendance after 9/11, 149; educational cam-
palestinian intifada, 54–55
paigns by, 13, 26, 148; mentioned, 9, 61, 119,
pan Am Flight 103, 54
121, 135, 150; statement issued by, following
patel, vasudev, 29
9/11, 25
pATriOT Act, 15, 32–33, 94–95
patriotism, 22, 68, 194n13
national Asian pacific American legal
pennsylvania, 18, 20
Consortium, 32
pentagon, 4, 18, 19, 28
national Commission on Terrorism, 168
persian Gulf War, 23, 55, 115, 138
national Crime victimization surveys, 31
pew research Center, 10, 19, 172
national institutes of standards and
phillips, Brenda, 8
Technology, 197n19
phoenix, 29
national security entry-exit registration
phone tapping, 94, 130
system (nseers), 34, 192n85
pipes, Daniel, 6
nazis, 171
population: Arab American, 11; muslim,
New Species of Trouble, A (erikson), 22
worldwide, 11; muslim American, 9–10, 11,
new york City, 12, 20, 103–104
12, 37, 172
new york City Commission on Human
powell, Colin, 112, 113
rights, 172
prayers, 2, 42–43, 145, 148
nichols, Terry, 110, 165
price, larme, 29
9/11: academic and popular interpretations
prince, samuel Henry, 21
of, 21–22, 145; assumption of muslim or
profiling, 24, 31–32, 63, 78, 91–95; endorse-
Arab involvement in, 55–56, 108, 110–111,
ments of, 66, 91–92, 117–118
167; dominant narrative of, 175–176; eco-
propaganda, 46
nomic effects of, 19; events of, 17–18; false
provide Appropriate Tools required to
reports about further events associated with,
intercept and Obstruct Terrorism Act of
112; fatalities during, 18, 168, 187n4; heal-
2001 (UsA pATriOT Act of 2001), 15,
ing from, 176–177; initially believed to be
32–33, 94–95
an accident, 17, 186–187n1; magnitude of
impact of, 18–20, 23, 145; memorial sites
Qatar, 185n42, 192n85
associated with, 124, 127; national mood
Quarantelli, enrico, 165–166
and attitude after, 6, 7, 22, 137, 145, 178;
Qur’an, 148, 159; and the hijab, 201n28; mis-
psychological impacts of, 19; social solidarity
interpretations of, 5, 6, 56, 143; women and
and, 21–22, 68, 103–104, 125–126, 129, 140,
men viewed in, 45, 51
175–176; volunteer efforts and, 20, 124–125,
176–17
7
race, as perceived by children, 37–38
9/11 Commission Report, The, 186–187n1
racial profiling. See profiling
north Korea, 192n85
ramadan, 38, 39, 136
nseers, 34, 192n85
rando, Therese, 178
reagan-Bush administration, 15
Oklahoma City bombing, 187n4; backlash
Reel Bad Arabs (shaheen), 13
resulting from, 24, 32, 110, 115, 165; impact
religion: for Americans, after 9/11, 145,
of, 110, 165, 187n4
200nn13–14; categorizations of, perceived
Oman, 185n42, 192n85
by children, 38; and the First Amendment,
Operation Tips (Terrorism information and
42; and muslim Americans ( see islam); and
prevention system), 75–76
terrorism, 168–169; in the United states,
O’reilly, Bill, 6
10, 37
Index / 213
Review of Higher Education, 86
ernment response to, 24, 32–34; as prohib-
robertson, pat, 66
ited by islamic law, 25–26; and religion,
roque, Frank, 28–29
168–169; against the United states, 109, 167,
rove, Karl, 186–187n1
187n4
russia, 29
textbooks, 45–46
therapeutic community, 104–105, 176, 196n5
sAAlT, 32
“This is War” (Coulter), 117
said, edward, 51, 169
Thomas, Cal, 6
san Diego, 12
Tien, lee, 75–76
san Francisco international Airport, 20
Total information Awareness (TiA) system,
saudi Arabia, 90, 167, 185n42, 192n85
75, 76
savage, michael, 6
Trauma and Recovery (Herman), 178
Scapegoats of September 11th (Welch), 170
truck bombings, 187n4
scarves for solidarity campaign, 26
Tunisia, 185n42, 192n85
september 11, 2001. See 9/11
TWA: Flight 800, 24; Flight 847, 23, 24
sevis, 90
Twin Towers. See World Trade Center
shaheen, Jack, 13
shiites, 23
Uddin, rais, 29
sikes, melvin, 65, 130
Uecker, Jeremy e., 200n14
sikh American legal Defense and education
United Arab emirates, 90, 167, 185n42, 192n85
Fund, 32
United states, 197n17; and ideal of justice,
sikhs, 28, 32, 64, 168, 171
freedom, and opportunity for all, 77–78;
smith, Jane, 36, 143, 201n28
immigrants and minorities demonized dur-
sodhi, Balbir singh, 28, 117
ing national insecurity in, 14–16; muslim
solnit, rebecca, 176
population in, 9, 10, 12; terrorism against,
somalia, 185n42, 192n85
109, 167, 187n4
south Asian American leaders of Tomorrow
UsA pATriOT Act of 2001, 15, 32–33, 94–95