73.“Diagnostic criteria for PTSD include a history of exposure to a traumatic event that meets specific stipulations and symptoms from each of four symptom clusters: intrusion, avoidance, negative alterations in cognitions and mood, and alterations in arousal and reactivity. The sixth criterion concerns duration of symptoms; the seventh assesses functioning; and, the eighth criterion clarifies symptoms as not attributable to a substance or co-occurring medical condition.” DSM-5 Diagnostic Criteria for PTSD, U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, http://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/PTSD-overview/dsm5_criteria_ptsd.asp.
74.Fiona Klasen et al., “Multiple Trauma and Mental Health in Former Ugandan Child Soldiers,” 579.
75.Brett T. Litz, Nathan Stein, Eileen Delaney, Leslie Lebowitz, William P. Nash, Caroline Silva, Shira Maguen, “Moral Injury and Moral Repair in War Veterans: A Preliminary and Model and Intervention Strategy,” Clinical Psychology Review 29, no. 8 (2009): 695; Jonathan Shay, Odysseus in America: Combat Trauma and the Trials of Homecoming (New York: Scribner, 2010).
76.Examples from the Quran include, “Fight in the cause of God those who fight you, but do not transgress limits; for God loveth not transgressors” (2:190). “But if they cease, God is Oft Forgiving, Most Merciful. And fight them on until there is no more tumult or oppression, and there prevail justice and faith in God; but if they cease, let there be no hostility except to those who practice oppression” (2:192–193). There is also a well-cited Hadith from Abu Bakr al-Siddiq, the first caliph, who said to his army, “I advise you ten things: Do not kill women or children or an aged, infirm person. Do not cut down fruit-bearing trees. Do not destroy an inhabited place. Do not slaughter sheep or camels except for food. Do not burn bees and do not scatter them. Do not steal from the booty, and do not be cowardly.” Malik’s Muwatta’, “Kitab al-Jihad,” 21.3.10.
77.Casey T. Taft et al., “Risk Factors for Partner Violence Among a National Sample of Combat Veterans,” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 73, no. 1 (2005): 151–59.
78.James Dao, “Drone Pilots Are Found to Get Stress Disorders Much as Those in Combat Do,” New York Times, February 22, 2013, http://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/23/us/drone-pilots-found-to-get-stress-disorders-much-as-those-in-combat-do.html?_r=0; Rachel MacNair, Perpetration-Induced Traumatic Stress: The Psychological Consequences of Killing (Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2002). Rachel MacNair, “Psychological Reverberations for the Killers: Preliminary Historical Evidence for Perpetration-Induced Traumatic Stress,” Journal of Genocide Research 3, no. 2 (2001): 273–82; S. Maguen et al., “Killing and Latent Classes of PTSD Symptoms in Iraq and Afghanistan Veterans,” Journal of Affective Disorders 145, no. 3 (2013): 344–48; Angela Nickerson et al, “Accidental and Intentional Perpetration of Serious Injury or Death: Correlates and Relationship to Trauma Exposure,” Journal of Trauma: Injury, Infection, and Critical Care 71, no. 6 (2011): 1821–28; B. Litz et al., “Moral Injury and Moral Repair in War Veterans: A Preliminary Model and Intervention Strategy,” Clinical Psychology Review 29, no. 8 (2009): 695–706.
79.Roland Weierstall, Claudia Patricia Bueno Castellanos, Frank Neuner, and Thomas Elbert, “Relations Among Appetitive Aggression, Post-Traumatic Stress and Motives for Demobilization: A Study in Former Colombian Combatants,” Conflict and Health 7, no. 1 (2013): 9; Roland Weierstall, Maggie Schauer, and Elbert Thomas, “An Appetite for Aggression,” Scientific American Mind 24, no. 2 (2013): 46.
80.Steven Pinker refers to this site as the most comprehensive resource he could find: “Abolition of Slavery Timeline,” Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abolition_of_slavery_timeline, accessed November 29, 2014.
81.“Report on the Protection of Civilians in Armed Conflict in Iraq: 6 July–10 September 2014,” Office for the High Commissioner for Human Rights, September 2014, 15.
82.“Who, What, Why: Who are the Yazidis?” BBC Magazine Monitor, August 7, 2014, http://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-magazine-monitor-28686607.
83.Richard Spencer, “ISIL Carried out Massacres and Mass Sexual Enslavement of Yazidis, UN Confirms.” The Telegraph, October 2014. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/islamic-state/11160906/Isil-carried-out-massacres-and-mass-sexual-enslavement-of-Yazidis-UN-confirms.html; “Transgenerational Transmissions and Chosen Traumas: An Aspect of Large-Group Identity” Group Analysis 34, (March 2001): 79–97.
84.“The Revival of Slavery,” Dabiq, no. 4 (September 2014): 14.
85.Ibid., 16.
86.“Su’al wa-Jawab fi al-Sabi wa Riqab: Questions and Answers on Taking Captives and Slaves,” as translated by MEMRI Jihad and Terrorism Monitor, December 4, 2014, http://www.memrijttm.org/about-memri-jttm.html.
87.Ibid.
88.Ibid.
89.Ibid.
90.Ibid.
91.Vamik Volkan, “On Chosen Traumas,” Mind and Human Interaction 3, 2013.
92.Email interview with Vamik Volkan, December 30, 2014.
93.Otto F. Kernberg, “Sanctioned Social Violence: A Psychoanalytic View, Part 1,” 691.
CHAPTER 10. THE COMING FINAL BATTLE?
1.“Articles of Faith,” ch. 3 in The World’s Muslims: Unity and Diversity, Pew Research Center, August 9, 2012; http://www.pewforum.org/2012/08/09/the-worlds-muslims-unity-and-diversity-3-articles-of-faith/#end-times.
2.Miraiam Karouny, “Apocalyptic Prophecies Drive Both Sides to Syrian Battle for End of Time,” Reuters, April 1, 2014.
3.Jean-Pierre Filiu, Apocalypse in Islam (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2011), 70.
4.David Cook, Contemporary Muslim Apocalyptic Literature (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2005), 173–74.
5.“The Five Letters to the African Corps,” translated by the U.S. Defense Department’s Harmony Program, AFGP-2002-600053, June 5, 2002, http://selectedwisdom.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/12/AFGP-2002-600053-trans-Meta.pdf; Vanguards of Khurasan, “ ‘Vanguards of Khorasan’ Editor Promotes al-Qaeda, Revolutions in First Appearance in as-Sahab Video,” Global Terrorism Research Project, statement, released June 28, 2013, http://gtrp.haverford.edu/aqsi/aqsi-statement/775; Tara McKelvey, “New Militant Group Khorasan Creates Mystery and Fear,” BBC News, September 2014, http://www.bbc.com/news/29334548.
6.Cook, Contemporary Muslim Apocalyptic Literature, 173.
7.William McCants, “The Foreign Policy Essay: The Sectarian Apocalypse,” Brookings Institution, October 26, 2014. McCants is currently working on a book on the topic of this chapter, which we highly recommend.
8.Hassan Abbas, email communication, December 5, 2014.
9.Cook, Contemporary Muslim Apocalyptic Literature, 217; Filiu, Apocalypse in Islam, 5.
10.Cook, Contemporary Muslim Apocalyptic Literature, 8.
11.Ibid., 9.
12.Filiu, Apocalypse in Islam, 119, 130.
13.Ibid., 119, 139.
14.Karouny, “Apocalyptic Prophecies.” A list and interpretation of signs that the end times are imminent can be found, for example, in “The Heart of Islam Is al-Sham and Its Covenant Is Ruling by Islam,” Khilafah.com, http://www.khilafah.com/index.php/concepts/islamic-culture/13692-the-heart-of-islam-is-al-sham-and-its-covenant-is-ruling-by-islam, last updated April 5, 2012; “The End of Times and the Signs of the Mahdi,” End of Times, http://www.endoftimes.net/03signsofthemahdi05a.html; “Syria (Alsham—the Heartland of Islam)—Is a Sign of Great Coming,” Islamicintrospection, http://islamicintrospection.wordpress.com/2013/01/09/syriaalsham-the-heartland-of-islam-is-a-sign-of-great-coming/, last updated January 9, 2013.
15.David Kirkpatrick, “New Freedoms in Tunisia Drive Support for ISIS,” New York Times, October 21, 2014, http://www.nytimes.com/2014/10/22/world/africa/new-freedoms-in-tunisia-drive-support-for-isis.html?_r=0.
16.Ibid.
17.Ibid.
18.Filiu, Apocalypse, 187.
19.Ibid.
20.Mustafa Setmariam Nasar, Part I: The Roots, History and Experiences and Part II: The Call, Program and Method (December 2004): 1518, as cited in Filiu, Apocalypse, 189.
21
.David Cook, “Abu Musa’b Al-Suri and Abu Musa’b Al-Zarqawi: The Apocalyptic Theorist and the Apocalyptic Practitioner,” unpublished ms.
22.Ibid.
23.William McCants, “ISIS Fantasies of an Apocalyptic Showdown in Northern Syria,” Brookings Institution, October 3, 2014, http://www.brookings.edu/blogs/iran-at-saban/posts/2014/10/03-isis-apocalyptic-showdown-syria-mccants.
24.William McCants, “The Foreign Policy Essay.
25.Hannah Allam, “Peter Kassig’s Friends Hope Unusual Islamic State Video Means He Fought His Beheading,” McClatchy DC, November 16, 2014, http://www.mcclatchydc.com/2014/11/16/247033/islamic-state-video-claims-beheading.html.
26.Mark Juergensmeyer, Terror in the Mind of God: The Global Rise of Religious Violence (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000); Robert J. Lifton, Destroying the World to Save It (New York: Henry Holt, 1999).
27.The word cult is no longer used by scholars of religion. There has been academic debate over whether the use of the word cult is derogatory or whether this concern is just academic excessive political correctness. In 2007, though, a study looked at this question by surveying 2,500 people to look at the perspectives of nonacademics. The survey revealed “the remarkably negative view Nebraskans have of cults, [and] their general acceptance of new religious movements.” Paul J. Olson, “The Public Perception of ‘Cults’ and ‘New Religious Movements,’” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 45, no. 1 (2007): 97–106. Nonetheless, we will use the term cult here as it is commonly defined, for clarity.
28.John C.Danforth, “Final Report to the Attorney General Concerning the 1993 Confrontation at the Mt. Carmel Complex” [Redacted Version], November 8, 2000, http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/Danforthreport-final.pdf; 6. Danforth concluded that the U.S. government agents were not responsible for setting the fire. The role of government agents in the siege is still contested.
29.Indeed, David Cook argues that one disadvantage to using apocalyptic teachings for terrorist groups is that it could lead followers to fatalism rather than action.
30.“Evidence Indicates Uganda Cult Held an Eerie Prelude to Fire,” New York Times, March 26, 2000; “Cult in Uganda Poisoned Many, Police Say,” New York Times, July 28, 2000.
31.Michael Barkun, A Culture of Conspiracy: Apocalyptic Visions in Contemporary America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003), 169, as cited in Filiu, Apocalypse, 193.
32.Filiu, Apocalypse, 76.
33.This paragraph summarizes Thomas Hegghammer and Stephane Lacroix, “The Meccan Rebellion,” in The Meccan Rebellion (Bristol, England: Amal Press, 2011).
34.Alistair Crooke, “Middle East Time Bomb: The Aim of ISIS Is to Replace the Saud Family as the New Emirs of Arabia,” World Post, November 2, 2014, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/alastair-crooke/isis-aim-saudi-arabia_b_5748744.html.
35.Hegghammer and Lacroix, “The Meccan Rebellion.”
36.Lorne L. Dawson, “When Prophecy Fails and Faith Persists: A Theoretical Overview,” Nova Religio: The Journal of Alternative and Emergent Religions 3, no. 1 (1999): 60–82.
37.Examples of millenarian cults that have survived the failure of prophecy include Jehovah’s Witnesses, Lubavitcher Hasidim, and the Rouxists. Jehovah’s Witnesses are a millenarian, evangelical Christian denomination who believe that the millennium of peace was spiritually laid in 1914, Lubavitcher Hasidim is an Orthodox Jewish movement whose living messiah passed away, and the Rouxists are a French messianic movement founded when their leader, George Roux, claimed to be the reincarnation of Christ. Dawson, “When Prophecy Fails and Faith Persists.”
38.Ibid.
39.This concept is based primarily on 1 Thessalonians 4:17: “Then we which are alive and remain shall be caught up together with them in the clouds, to meet the Lord in the air: and so shall we ever be with the Lord.” As interpreted by Christian fundamentalists, the rapture, which lifts the chosen few out of the mayhem of end-time destruction to meet the returning Messiah, is a reward for their steadfastness. Kerry Nobel, Tabernable of Hate: Why They Bombed Oklahoma City (Prescott, Ontario: Voyager, 1998), 120. The Darbyite movement of 1830s–1880s was the forerunner to modern Christian fundamentalism and supplied the theological basis for the rise of fundamentalism’s emphasis on biblical literalism and inerrancy and the notion of “premillennial dispensationalism”—that Jesus will return prior to his millennial rule, and that mankind has entered the end time after receiving previous “dispensations” from God in the form of Adam’s banishment from Eden, the Flood, and Christ’s grace, to which man has failed to respond. Anglican John Nelson Darby’s seven dispensations, although reflecting earlier thinking and sources regarding the rapture, premillenialism, and dispensationalism, was original in its focus on the rapture, which became a central feature in his prophetic system, and in his ideas pertaining to ingathering of the Jews and Israel. Charles B. Strozier, On the Psychology of Fundamentalism in America (Boston: Beacon Press, 1994), 183–84; James A. Aho, The Politics of Righteousness: Idaho Christian Patriotism (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1990), 53–54.
40.Will McCants, email communication to coauthor Jessica Stern, November 7, 2014.
41.Rosabeth Moss Kanter observed many of these commitment mechanisms in nineteenth-century utopias and communes. Rosabeth Moss Kanter, Commitment and Community: Communes and Utopias in Sociological Perspective (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1972), 83–84.
42.Lifton defines totalistic groups as ideological organizations that strive to control all human behavior and thought. Lifton, Destroying the World to Save It.
43.Ibid., 5.
44.Ibid.
45.Jessica Stern, “Terrorist Motivations and Unconventional Weapons,” in Peter Lavoy, Scott Sagan, and James Wirtz, eds., Planning the Unthinkable (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2000).
46.Lifton, Destroying the World to Save It, 5.
CHAPTER 11. THE STATE OF TERROR
1.Reza Aslan, No God but God (New York: Random House, 2006), 263.
2.Karen Armstrong, Islam—A Short History (New York: Random House, 2002), 165.
3.Marwan Muasher, email communication, December 9, 2014.
4.Office of the Press Secretary, “Statement by the President on ISIL,” The White House, September 10, 2014, http://www.whitehouse.gov/blog/2014/09/10/president-obama-we-will-degrade-and-ultimately-destroy-isil.
5.Geoff Earle, “Dempsey Hints at Ground Troups if US Attack on ISIS Fail,” New York Post, September 16, 2014, http://nypost.com/2014/09/16/army-general-to-congress-if-airstrikes-fail-us-should-deploy-ground-troops-in-iraq/.
6.Millenarianism involves the expectation of sweeping societal change, possibly as a result of the apocalypse.
7.Steven Pinker, email communication, September 13, 2014.
8.John D. Graham, and Jonathan Baert Wiener, eds., Risk vs. Risk: Tradeoffs in Protecting Health and the Environment (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995), 234.
9.Anthony Patt and Richard Zeckhauser, “Behavioral Perceptions and Policies Toward the Environment,” in Rajeev Gowda and Jeffrey C. Fox, eds., Judgments, Decisions, and Public Policy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 256–302; Graham and Wiener, eds., Risk vs. Risk, 234.
10.Jessica Stern, “Dreaded Risks and the Control of Biological Weapons,” International Security 27, no. 3 (2003): 89–123.
11.“Syrian Refugees,” http://syrianrefugees.eu/, last updated October 2014; “Jordan: Vulnerable Refugees Forcibly Returned to Syria,” Human Rights Watch, November 24, 2014, http://www.hrw.org/news/2014/11/23/jordan-vulnerable-refugees-forcibly-returned-syria.
12.Alessandra Masi, “Raqqa Civilians, Hit by New Assad Airstrikes, Tell Stories of ISIS Executions and Coalition Bombings,” International Business Times, November 25, 2014, www.ibtimes.com/raqqa-civilians-hit-new-assad-airstrikes-tell-stories-isis-executions-coalition-1729295.
13.“Jabhat al-Nusra Eyes Idlib for Islamic Emirate,” Al-Monitor, November 13, 2014, http://www.al-monitor.c
om/pulse/originals/2014/11/jabhat-al-nusra-idlib-islamic-emirate.html.
14.Charles Lister, “In Syria, a Last Gasp Warning for U.S. Influence,” Brookings Institution, December 5, 2014, http://www.brookings.edu/blogs/markaz/posts/2014/12/05-syria-united-states-losing-last-gasp-at-leverage.
15.Daniel Bolger, “The Truth About Wars,” op-ed, New York Times, November 10, 2014, http://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/11/opinion/the-truth-about-the-wars-in-iraq-and-afghanistan.html?_r=0.
16.John Harwood, “An American General Explains How We Lost In Iraq And Afghanistan,” NPR On Point, (radio), November 13, 2014, http://onpoint.wbur.org/2014/11/13/lost-iraq-afghanistan-army-general. Former Senator James Webb and General Powell also warned against occupying Iraq, according to this show. In 2002, then Senator James Webb wrote an op-ed asking whether the American people were prepared to occupy Iraq for 30–50 years. James Webb, “Heading for Trouble: Do We Really Want to Occupy Iraq for the Next 30 Years?” Washington Post, September 4, 2002, http://www.motherjones.com/mojo/2006/09/jim-webbs-2002-op-ed-against-invading-iraq.
17.Leslie Gelb, “Iraq Must Not Come Apart,” New York Times, July 1, 2014, http://www.nytimes.com/2014/07/02/opinion/leslie-gelb-iraq-must-not-come-apart.html.
18.“David Petraeus: ISIS’s Rise in Iraq Isn’t a Surprise,” Frontline, PBS, July 29, 2014.
19.Clint Watts, “The U.S. Can’t Destroy ISIS, Only ISIS Can Destroy ISIS—The Unfortunate Merits of the ‘Let Them Rot’ Strategy,” Foreign Policy Research Institute, September 2014, http://www.fpri.org/geopoliticus/2014/09/us-cant-destroy-isis-only-isis-can-destroy-isis-unfortunate-merits-let-them-rot-strategy.
20.Liz Sly, “The Islamic State is failing at being a state,” Washington Post, December 24, 2014, http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/the-islamic-state-is-failing-at-being-a-state/2014/12/24/bfbf8962-8092-11e4-b936-f3afab0155a7_story.html; Kevin Sullivan and Karla Adam, “Hoping to create a new society, the Islamic State recruits entire families,” Washington Post, December 24, 2014, http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/hoping-to-create-a-new-homeland-the-islamic-state-recruits-entire-families/2014/12/24/dbffceec-8917-11e4-8ff4-fb93129c9c8b_story.html
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