The War of Independence can be divided into five phases. During the first phase (November 29, 1947-May 14, 1948), an armed struggle evolved between Palestinian irregulars and the Arab Liberation Army on the one hand and the Haganah on the other hand. The struggle occurred primarily in mixed cities, where both sides tried to seize strategic assets. At the conclusion of this phase, and particularly during April and May 1948, the Haganah carried out a number of successful operations in Jerusalem, Jaffa, Safed, Tiberias, and especially Haifa, gaining control of a significant portion of these cities. The Palestinian irregulars and the Arab Liberation Army suffered major defeats in the north of the country. In rural areas the Palestinians besieged and attempted to conquer isolated settlements without success.
The Palestinians enjoyed a partial advantage during the early stages of the war in the battle for the major roads. One case in point was the road to Jerusalem, which they controlled, forcing the Haganah to use convoys to transport supplies to the besieged city. Toward the end of the period, the Haganah established control of the roads through a series of operations, the most important of which was Operation Nachson (early April 1948), which opened the road to Jerusalem. Toward the end of the mandate, Jewish territorial contiguity was established between Metulla in the north and Be’er Tuvia in the south. Palestinians continued to control cities and villages in which they constituted a majority of the population.
During the second phase of the war (May 15-June 11, 1948), four Arab armies invaded following the withdrawal of British forces and Israel’s Declaration of Independence. On May 15, 1948, the Palestinian irregulars and the Arab Liberation Army were joined by an expeditionary force consisting of eight brigades, or 22,000 troops, from four Arab armies. Their mission was to conquer all the land that the British had evacuated and institute Palestinian rule. At the time, the Arab states’ goal of wiping out the newly declared Jewish state appeared achievable. The Arab brigades were armed with light and medium weapons, and even had access to limited air, cannon, and armored support. During this period, the Israel Defense Forces (IDF), which was officially established on May 30, 1948, fought to hold off the Arab forces and inflicted many casualties in the process. At Latrun, Jenin, Mishmar Hayarden, and Ashdod, IDF forces strove to stop the Jordanian Arab Legion and the armies of Iraq, Syria, and Egypt. After three weeks of tremendously difficult fighting, the UN mediator who began working in the country at the time, Count Folke Bernadotte of Sweden, managed to convince both sides to sign a month-long ceasefire agreement that was to take effect on June 11.
During the third phase, the UN-brokered ceasefire (June 11-July 9, 1948), the situation turned in Israel’s favor. IDF units were equipped with new weapons supplied by Czechoslovakia and reinforcements bolstered the undermanned units. The IDF became a mobile army with significantly greater firepower than it had previously. The Arab states had more difficulty replenishing the units that had been hit in the fighting, due to the weapons embargo imposed by the Western nations and the fact that they were not effectively prepared to do so. As a result, they were less prepared for the next round of fighting.
During the fourth phase (July 9-October 5, 1948), IDF forces conquered the Lydda-Ramle region (the Battles of the Ten Days), the Ramle-Latrun-Jerusalem region (Operation Dani), and areas in the Galilee and in the south of the country. At the onset of the second ceasefire on July 18, forces of the Arab Legion were still in Judea and Samaria, the Egyptian army was holding a line extending from Ashkelon in the west to Beit Guvrin in the east, and the Syrian army still held territory in the environs of Mishmar Hayarden. The IDF was in a state of readiness, waiting to attack these forces.
During the fifth phase (October 15, 1948-March 1949), the IDF launched a comprehensive military offensive. First, it conquered the Negev in three operations (Yoav, Horev, and Uvda). IDF forces reached Eilat and even crossed over the borders of the mandate, reaching the outskirts of El Arish in the Sinai Peninsula. In the north, the IDF conquered the entire Upper Galilee (Operation Hiram) and advanced northward into Lebanon as far as the Litani River. During the armistice talks between Israel and Egypt, Jordan, Syria, and Lebanon that began in February 1949, it was agreed that the borders between the countries would be identical to the borders of the British Mandate of Palestine with two exceptions: the Gaza Strip, which remained under Egyptian control, and the West Bank, which remained in Jordanian hands (Jerusalem was divided between Israel and Jordan with the border winding through the city’s streets).
17 Arms Embargo. At the beginning of the war, the United States and Great Britain imposed an embargo on shipping weapons and ammunition to the Middle East; most other countries followed suit. To arm the Haganah, weapons and ammunition were smuggled into the country from Europe and the United States. Czechoslovakia was the only country that agreed to supply weapons to the Jews of Palestine and the young State of Israel, with the indirect approval of the Soviet Union, and these weapons played an important role in Israel’s victory in the War of Independence.
18 Palmah is an acronym for Plugot Mahaz, which is Hebrew for assault forces. The Palmah was the elite fighting force of the Haganah and had several brigades. When the IDF was created, the Palmah became part of it, but initially retained its elite identity and functioned as a special unit within the IDF.
19 Tel Katzir Its name is Arabic for “hill of the fortress.” Its other name, “hill of the rift,” reflects its location along the Syrian-African Rift Valley that runs through the Jordan Valley and along the foot of the Golan Heights.
20 Levi Eshkol was born in the Ukraine in 1898 and made aliyah in 1914. During the British Mandate period, he gained prominence as an extremely effective figure in the political realm. He was equally effective regarding practical work in the Jewish collective agricultural sector, the Histadrut, and other Jewish and Zionist institutions. During Israel’s War of Independence, he served as Ben-Gurion’s deputy in the Defense Ministry while retaining his position as treasurer of the Jewish Agency. In 1952, under then-prime minister Ben-Gurion, he was appointed finance minister in the country’s fourth government. He is considered one of the best finance ministers in the history of the State of Israel. Upon Ben-Gurion’s resignation in 1963, Eshkol was named to replace him, serving as prime minister until his death in 1969.
21 Tel Aviv University’, which Eli visited during this period, was initially located at Abu Kabir in the south of the city. The biological-pedagogical institute, which already was operating in Tel Aviv, became the nucleus of the future university in 1953. Then Tel Aviv mayor Haim Levanon believed the establishment of a respected academic institution would attract young adults to the city. The initiative received the full backing of the Tel Aviv Municipal Council, despite a lively debate in the newspapers as to whether there was a need for another university in the country.
22 Dov Lautman, Michael Strauss and Stef Wertheimer were three of the most important industrialists in Israel during its early decades. Dov Lautman, one of Eli’s closest friends, was born in 1936, studied mechanical engineering at MIT, founded the textile company Delta Galilee Industries Ltd., and served as its chairman. He also served as president of the Manufacturers Association of Israel between 1986 and 1993 and was awarded the Israel Prize in 2007. Michael Strauss was born in Germany in 1934. Forty years later, after the death of his father, he was appointed chairman of Strauss Dairies. In 1991, he was named president and chairman of the Strauss Group, which at that stage encompassed additional companies and engaged in business in Israel’s food manufacturing sector. In 1995, he began to expand the group’s operations internationally and two years later, took over the Israel-based company Elite. Steph Wertheimer was born in 1926 and is a former member of Knesset and a recipient of the Israel Prize. He is also the founder of ISCAR, a manufacturer of cutting tools and metalworking machines (such as lathes) primarily for export.
23 Sinai War. Between October 29 and November 5, 1956, Israel, Britain, and France fought a brief war
against Egypt to end terrorist raids into Israel from Egypt and the Egyptian’s sea blockade of Eilat, the only Israeli port on the Red Sea. During the Sinai War, also known in Israel as Operation Kadesh, the IDF conquered the Sinai Peninsula with the exception of a narrow strip beside the Suez Canal, destroyed substantial parts of Egypt’s military infrastructure, and did significant damage to the Egyptian army. After the war, Israel evacuated the territory it had conquered. During the Israeli campaign, Britain and France carried out a joint operation known as Operation Musketeer, which aimed to seize control of the Suez Canal.
24 Born in the Ukraine in 1896, Golda Meir grew up in Milwaukee and immigrated to the British Mandate of Palestine during the early 1920s. In the decades to come, she emerged as an important figure in Israeli politics, serving as minister of labor (1949-1955) and foreign minister (1955-1966) in the governments of David Ben-Gurion and Levi Eshkol, and as prime minister during 1969-1974.
25 Gamal Abdel Nasser rose to power in Egypt in 1954 and served as the country’s president until his death in 1970. His charisma and articulation of Pan-Arab ideology made him one of the most important Arab leaders of the twentieth century.
26 Nigerian Independence. In 1957, the British granted independence to Eastern and Western Nigeria, and Abubakar Tafawa Balewa was named prime minister. Soon after that, Northern Nigeria was granted the same status.
27 Pinchas Sapir (1906-1975) was a prominent figure in Israeli politics from the second half of the 1950s until his death in the mid-1970s. His first cabinet position, in 1955 as part of Ben-Gurion’s government, was minister of trade and industry. He continued serving in this position under Prime Minister Levi Eshkol while simultaneously serving as minister of finance. He also held this position under Prime Minister Golda Meir until 1972. During this period, he also was the secretary general of the Israeli Labor Party (August 1968-December 1969), but did not serve as minister of finance.
28 The Bank of Israel is the highest monetary authority in the State of Israel and the country’s central bank. David Horowitz served as its first governor from 1954 to 1971. Between the end of his tenure and the time of writing (2014), eight other governors filled this post. The governor of the Bank of Israel operates under the authority of the Bank of Israel Law, which the Knesset passed on August 24, 1954. According to this law, the bank’s main aim is to ensure price stability. Its goals also include promoting growth and employment, reducing social gaps, and supporting stability and the smooth functioning of Israel’s financial system.
29 German Reparations Agreement. On September 10, 1952, Israeli Foreign Minister Moshe Sharett and West German chancellor Konrad Adenauer signed an agreement for West Germany to pay 3 million deutschmarks to Israel as reparations for the suffering and material damage caused to the Jews during the Holocaust. Israelis referred to this with the Hebrew word for payments, shilumim. The West German government also committed to pay pensions to Holocaust survivors. The agreement sparked fierce political controversy and increased tension between different sectors of the Israeli population at the time.
30 The Arab boycott of Israel, which commenced prior to the establishment of the state, was based on the assumption that doing economic damage to the organized Jewish community in the British Mandate of Palestine and the State of Israel was an integral part of the Arab world’s struggle against its existence. The boycott began with a resolution of the Arab League in 1945 and was stepped up six years later when the league resolved that no Arab country could maintain economic relations with a company that maintained economic relations with the State of Israel. An office to monitor the implementation of the boycott was set up in Damascus. At its height, the boycott was imposed on 8,500 companies, including major international corporations such as Ford and Coca-Cola. At the time of writing (2014), the influence of the boycott is minimal.
31 Six Day War. In mid-May 1967, Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser took a series of threatening steps against Israel, including massing an extremely large concentration of Egyptian forces in the Sinai Peninsula, closing the Straits of Tiran to Israeli ships, and expelling the UN forces that had been stationed in the Gaza Strip since 1956. Israel viewed these Egyptian measures as a casus belli. After a period of hesitation on the part of the Israeli government under Prime Minister Levi Eshkol, Israel retaliated. At dawn on June 5, 1967, Israel launched an air attack on the Egyptian air force, destroying Egypt’s air power in just three hours. Under then-chief of General Staff Yitzhak Rabin, the IDF subsequently invaded the Sinai Peninsula with three divisions and conquered the entire peninsula within three days. Despite Israel’s warnings against doing so, Jordan joined the hostilities, siding with Egypt. In response, the IDF invaded the West Bank (Judea and Samaria). Within a few days, Israeli forces had reached the banks of the Jordan after conquering the entire West Bank, including eastern Jerusalem. June 9 marked the onset of hostilities against Syria, which also had joined in the fighting. In the coming days, Israeli forces conquered the Golan Heights, including the northern city of Kuneitra. On the Israeli side, the fighting left 777 dead and approximately 3,000 wounded. Known in Israel as the Six Day War, Israel’s decisive military victory dramatically changed the face of Israel and the entire Middle East. Some Israelis viewed it as a new opportunity for peace between Israel and its neighbors. Others regarded it as the first step in establishing the third Israeli kingdom, which they believed would cover an area similar to that of the biblical kingdom of David and Solomon.
32 Teddy Kollek was born in Hungary in 1911 and immigrated to the British Mandate of Palestine in 1934. - He became a prominent political figure in the Jewish community. In 1965, he was elected mayor of Jerusalem, a position he held for 28 years. During his years in office, Jerusalem was transformed beyond recognition, its population grew significantly, and the city assumed much more importance as a cultural, economic, religious, social, and political center.
33 Yom Kippur War. On October 6, 1973, the morning of Yom Kippur, the Jewish Day of Atonement, another war broke out between Israel and Egypt and Syria. This time, the war came as a complete surprise. The Egyptian army crossed the Suez Canal and conquered a strip of territory adjacent to the canal. The Syrians conquered a substantial portion of the Golan Heights and Mount Hermon. Only after the full mobilization of its reserve forces was the IDF able to stop the Egyptian-Syrian offensive and stabilize the front lines, suffering major casualties in the process. A few days later, the IDF went on the offensive. On the Syrian front, it reconquered the Golan Heights, as well as an additional strip of territory located 40 kilometers from the Syrian capital of Damascus. In the south, IDF forces crossed the Suez Canal, encircled the Egyptian army from the north and the south, and advanced to a mere 101 kilometers from Cairo. In actuality, this war ultimately constituted a stellar victory for Israel since Damascus and Cairo were now in the range of IDF guns. However, the war also constituted a major trauma for Israeli society.
34 Founded by Frank Washburn in 1907, American Cyanamid was a leading American conglomerate that became one of the US’s top 100 manufacturing companies in the 1970s and beyond.
35 Yitzhak Rabin (1922-1995) was an officer in the Palmah and the Haganah, the seventh chief of general staff of the IDF and its commander during the Six Day War, an Israeli ambassador to the United States, and the fifth prime minister of the State of Israel (1974-1977). He also served as minister of defense in the national unity government of Yitzhak Shamir and Shimon Peres (1983-1989) and later served a second term as prime minister (1992-1995). Rabin signed peace treaties with the Palestinians (the Oslo Accords) and the Kingdom of Jordan and was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1994. During his second term as prime minister, he was murdered by a Jewish Israeli assassin who was motivated by his opposition to the Oslo Accords.
36 Menachem Begin (1913-1992) was the sixth prime minister of the State of Israel (1977-1983), chairman of the Herut Movement and the Likud Party, an Israeli government minister, and the commander o
f the underground Irgun movement during the pre-state struggle against the British Mandate. He signed the Israeli-Egyptian peace treaty and subsequently was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.
37 Yitzhak Shamir (1915-2012) was the seventh prime minster of the State of Israel (1983-1992) and an Israeli government minister. Throughout his career, he served as chairman of the Knesset, Knesset opposition leader, a senior official in the Mossad, and a commander of the pre-state underground group Lehi (the Stern Gang). After serving as chairman of the Knesset and foreign minister, he was elected the country’s seventh prime minister to replace Menachem Begin after his resignation in October 1983.
38 Shimon Peres (1924-2016) was the ninth president of the State of Israel and the country’s eighth prime minister (1986-1988). In the course of five decades, he served as a member of Knesset and a minister in various Israeli governments. He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1994. He is the only president of Israel to have also served as prime minister.
39 Jewish manufacturers in the British Mandate of Palestine began attempting to organize themselves in the second half of the 1920s. Aryeh Shenkar founded the Manufacturers Association in 1930 to promote the interests of Jewish manufacturers in the mandate. Shenkar served as president of the organization for 29 years. Eli Hurvitz was the organization’s eighth president.
40 Operation Peace in the Galilee. In early June 1982, the IDF launched Operation Peace in the Galilee. Under the leadership of Prime Minister Menachem Begin, the Israeli government announced that it would limit the scope of the operation to a distance of 30 to 40 kilometers inside Lebanon with the aim of placing all settlements in the Galilee outside the range of fire of terrorist groups with headquarters and bases in Lebanon. It soon became evident, however, that the government’s plans were much broader in scope, due to two goals that Begin and defense minister Ariel Sharon sought to achieve in the operation. The first was to eradicate the military forces based in Lebanon, particularly the Palestinian forces led by the PLO (Palestine Liberation Organization). These forces not only posed a threat to Israel’s northern border, but also established a terrorism hub in Beirut which operated against Israeli targets both within Israel and around the world. Their second goal was to try to achieve a number of fundamental solutions to problems facing Israel as a result of the collapse of the Lebanese state during the Lebanese civil war of 1975-1976. Israel thus sought to bring about significant change in Lebanon, remove the PLO and the Syrians from the country, and install a new regime that was pro-Israeli (and anti-Syrian). Although the Israeli operation quickly evolved into a war and Israeli forces advanced to the outskirts of Beirut, Israel’s actions in Lebanon ultimately ended in failure. The Palestinians in Lebanon were indeed weakened by the operation and its outcome. However, Israel’s struggle against the PLO was replaced by a struggle against the country’s Shiite Muslims. They included the fighters of Hezbollah, a militia supported by the Islamic regime in Iran. At the same time, the power vacuum provided Syria with the opportunity to establish itself in Lebanon. As a result, Israel was forced to continue contending with the Lebanese front for another 18 years, until the withdrawal of Israeli forces under the government of Prime Minister Ehud Barak.
Eli Hurvitz and the creation of Teva Pharmaceuticals: An Israeli Biography Page 43