The Indian Ocean
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37 Ma Huan, The Overall Survey, pp. 236–302, especially pp. 253–4.
38 See Roderich Ptak, 'Images of Maritime Asia in Two Yuan Texts: Daoyi zhilue and Yiyu zhi', in R. Ptak, China and the Asian Seas: Trade, Travel and Visions of the Other (1400–1750), Aldershot, Variorum, 1998, especially p. 55.
39 Gari Ledyard, 'Cartography in Korea', History of Cartography, II, 2, pp. 243–9.
40 John Villiers, 'Ships, Seafaring and the Iconography of Voyages in the Age of Vasco da Gama', in Anthony Disney and Emily Booth, eds, Vasco da Gama and the Linking of Europe and Asia, New Delhi, Oxford University Press, 2000, pp. 75–6.
41 Levathes, When China Ruled the Seas, p. 37; and for Portuguese sources see M.N. Pearson, Port Cities and Intruders, Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998, pp. 70–2.
42 Piri Reis, Kitab-i Bahriye (with an English translation), Ankara, Historical Research Foundation, Istanbul Research Centre, 1988, 4 vols, respectively I, pp. 91–3, 119–53, and 9.
43 Ross Dunn, Adventures of Ibn Battuta, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1986.
44 Ibn Battuta, The Travels of Ibn Battuta, II, pp. 374–82.
45 Ibn Battuta, The Travels of Ibn Battuta IV, pp. 812–17.
46 Richard C. Martin, ed., Approaches to Islam in Religious Studies, Tucson, University of Arizona Press, 1985, pp. 94–5.
47 David Parkin and Stephen C. Headley, eds, Islamic Prayer across the Indian Ocean: Inside and Outside the Mosque, London, Curzon, 2000, p. 3.
48 Dunn, Adventures, p. 116.
49 Paul Sinclair, 'Archeology in East Africa: An Overview of current Chronological Issues', Journal of African History, 32, 1991, p. 181.
50 Ibn Shahriyar, The Book of the Wonders of India, pp. 10, 31–6, 38, 102, 105.
51 al-Biruni, Alberuni's India, trans. and ed. Edward Sachau, Delhi, S. Chand, 1964, 2 vols, I, p. 270.
52 John Middleton, The World of the Swahili, An African Mercantile Civilisation, New Haven, Yale University Press, 1982, passim, e.g. p. 37.
53 John Sutton, A Thousand Years of East Africa, Nairobi, British Institute in Eastern Africa, 1990, pp. 67–8.
54 H.T. Wright, 'Trade and Politics on the Eastern Littoral of Africa, AD 800–1300', in Thurstan Shaw et al., eds, The Archeology of Africa: Food, Metals and Towns, London, Routledge, 1993, pp. 669–71.
55 Correia, Lendas da India, I, pp. 75–6.
56 Barbosa, Livro, II, pp. 74–8.
57 The best modern overviews are by Anthony Reid, 'The Islamization of Southeast Asia', in Muhammad Abu Bakar, Amarjit Kaur and Abdullah Zakaria Ghazali, eds, Historia: Essays in Commemoration of the 25th Anniversary of the Department of History, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, University of Malaya, 1984, pp. 13–33, which is excellent on disentangling motivations, and M.C. Ricklefs, A History of Modern Indonesia, Bloomington, Indiana University Press, 1981, pp. 3–13.
58 Randall Pouwels, 'East African Coastal History: Review Article', Journal of African History, 40, 1999, pp. 285–96, especially p. 287.
59 Horton and Middleton, The Swahili, pp. 179 et seq.
60 A theme worked out in detail in Parkin and Headley, Islamic Prayer, op. cit.
61 Dunn, Adventures of Ibn Battuta, p. 125.
62 Stephen Dale, Islamic Society on the South Asian Frontier: The Mapillas of Malabar (1498–1922), Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1980.
63 Barbosa, Livro, II, pp. 75–6.
64 J. Kathirithamby-Wells, 'The Islamic City: Melaka to Jogjakarta, c. 1500–1800', Modern Asian Studies, XX, 1986, p. 342 and passim.
65 Ibn Battuta, The Travels of Ibn Battuta, IV, p. 816; Ibn Jubayr, The Travels of Ibn Jubayr, p. 66.
66 Ibn Jubayr, The Travels of Ibn Jubayr, p. 65.
67 There is a good overview in Roderich Ptak, 'China and the Trade in Cloves, circa 960–1435,' in Roderich Ptak, China's Seaborne Trade with South and Southeast Asia (1200–1750), Aldershot, Ashgate, 1999. Much of this discussion of the spice trade draws on my 'Introduction', Spices in the Indian Ocean World, 'An Expanding World, vol. 11', Aldershot, Variorum, 1996, pp. xv-xxxvii.
68 Quoted in B. Schrieke, Indonesian Sociological Studies, The Hague, W. van Hoeve, 1955, vol. I, p. 18.
69 Tomé Pires, The Suma Oriental of Tomé Pires, ed. A. Cortesão, London, Hakluyt, 1944, 2 vols, I, pp. 45, 42.
70 Marco Polo, The Book of Ser Marco Polo, I, pp. 234–5, 390.
71 Roderich Ptak, 'Asian Trade in Spices, circa 1500: Quantities and Trade Routes – A synopsis of Portuguese and Other Sources', in R. Ptak, China's Seaborne Trade with South and Southeast Asia (1200–1750), Aldershot, Ashgate, 1999.
72 Marco Polo, The Book of Ser Marco Polo, I, pp. 331–2.
73 Ibn Battuta, The Travels of Ibn Battuta, II, pp. 408–9.
74 For the bullion trade see my 'Asia and World Precious Metal Flows in the Early Modern Period', in John McGuire, Patrick Bertola and Peter Reeves, eds, Evolution of the World Economy, Precious Metals and India, Delhi, Oxford University Press, 2001, pp. 21–57, and sources there cited.
75 Ibn Battuta, The Travels of Ibn Battuta, IV, p. 827. Generally see H.Ulrich Vogel, 'Cowry Trade and its Role in the Economy of Yunnan, the Ninth to the Middle of the Seventeenth Century', in Roderich Ptak and Dietmar Rothermund, eds, Emporia, Commodities and Entrepreneurs in Asian Maritime Trade, c. 1400–1750, Stuttgart, Steiner, 1991, pp. 231–62; Jan Hogendorn and Marion Johnson, The Shell Money of the Slave Trade, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press,1986; and James Heimann, 'Small Change and Ballast: Cowry Trade and Usage as an Example of Indian Ocean Economic History', South Asia, III, 1980, pp. 48–69.
76 Richard Pankhurst, 'Ethiopia across the Red Sea and Indian Ocean', Africa News Service, 17 May 1999; Philip Snow, The Star Raft: China's Encounter with Africa, Ithaca, Cornell University Press, 1989, pp. 16–20; Anthony Reid, The Land Below the Winds, New Haven, Yale University Press, 1988, pp. 129–36.
77 A. Rougeulle, 'Medieval Trade Networks in the Western Indian Ocean (8–14th Cent): Some Reflections from the Distribution Patterns of Chinese Imports in the Islamic World', in Himanshu Prabha Ray and Jean-Francois Salles, eds, Tradition and Archeology: Early Maritime Contacts in the Indian Ocean, New Delhi, Manohar, 1996, p. 176 and passim.
78 Barbosa, Livro, I, pp. 6–8, 22–3.
79 Ibn Battuta, The Travels of Ibn Battuta, II, p. 400.
80 Luis Filipe F.R. Thomaz, 'Malaka et ses communautés marchandes au tournant du 16e siècle', in Lombard and Aubin, eds, Marchands et hommes d'affairs, p. 31; Luis Filipe F.R. Thomaz, 'Malacca: The Town and the Society during the First Century of Portuguese Rule', in Revista de Cultura, 13/14, 1991, pp. 68–79.
81 R.J. Barendse, 'Trade and State in the Arabian Seas: A Survey from the Fifteenth to the Eighteenth Century', Journal of World History, XI, 2000, pp. 173–225.
82 Horton and Middleton, The Swahili, p. 76.
83 Snow, Star Raft, pp. 1, 24–5; Levathes, When China Ruled the Sea, p. 140.
84 G.P.S. Freeman-Grenville, 'A Beach Find in the Northern Territory, Australia', in Victor T. King and A.V.M. Horton, eds, From Buckfast to Borneo, Hull, University of Hull, 1995, pp. 536–40.
85 Hourani, Arab Seafaring, pp. 74–5.
86 Barbosa, Livro, II, pp. 76–7.
87 Ptak, 'Images', especially p. 55.
88 Wheatley, The Golden Khersonese, p. 75.
89 Roderich Ptak, 'China and Calicut in the Early Ming Period: Envoys and Tribute Embassies', in R. Ptak, China and the Asian Seas: Trade, Travel and Visions of the Other (1400–1750), Aldershot, Variorum, 1998.
90 Hermann Kulke, 'Rivalry and Competition in the Bay of Bengal in the Eleventh Century and its bearing on Indian Ocean Studies', in Om Prakash and Denys Lombard, eds, Commerce and Culture in the Bay of Bengal, 1500–1800, Delhi, Manohar, 1999, pp. 17–36.
91 Marco Polo, The Book of Ser Marco Polo, I, pp. 234–5, 390.
92 Chen Dasheng and Denys Lombard, 'Le rôle des étrrangers dans le commerce maritime de Quanzhou ('Zaitun') aux 13e et 14e siècles',
in Lombard and Aubin, eds, Marchands et hommes d'affairs, pp. 21–9.
93 Angela Schottenhammer, 'The Maritime Trade of Quanzhou (Zaitun) from the Ninth through the Thirteenth Century', in Himanshu Prabha Ray, ed., Archaeology of Seafaring: The Indian Ocean in the Ancient Period, Delhi, Pragati Publications, 1999, pp. 271–90.
94 Two slightly different translations of the first quotation in Levathes, When China Ruled the Sea, opposite the title page, and in Wheatley, The Golden Khersonese p. 89. The second quotation from H.P. Ray, 'An analysis of the Chinese Maritime Voyages into the Indian Ocean during the Early Ming Dynasty and their Raison d'être', China Reports, 23,1987, p. 70.
95 Mills introduction to Ma Huan, The Overall Survey, pp. 2–3.
96 Richard Barker, 'The Size of the Treasure Ships and other Chinese Vessels', Mariner's Mirror, 75, 1989, pp. 273–5.
97 Generally see the several studies by Roderich Ptak cited above, and for a breezy account Levathes. See also Haraprasad Ray, 'An analysis of the Chinese Maritime Voyages', pp. 65–87, which includes a useful table of the various voyages.
98 Sanneh in Pomper, ed., World History, p. 128.
99 Barbosa, Livro, II, pp. 227–9.
100 See G. Rex Smith and Ahmad 'Umar al-Zayla'i, trans. and ed., Bride of the Red Sea: A 10th/16th century Account of Jeddah, Durham, Centre for Middle Eastern and Islamic Studies, University of Durham, 1984, for a long and pious account of Jiddah and its association with Mecca, its walls, mosques, etc.
101 João de Barros, Da Asia, Lisboa, Na Regia officina typografica, 1777–88, II, viii, 1; III, i, 3.
102 Ibid., II, vii, p. 8.
103 Moira Tampoe, Maritime trade between China and the West: An Archaeological Study of the Ceramics from Siraf (Persian Gulf), 8th to 15th centuries A.D., Oxford, British Archaeological Reports, 1989; Hourani, Arab Seafaring, p. 69.
104 A. Vallavanthara, India in 1500 AD: The Narrative of Joseph the Indian, Mannanam, Research Institute for Studies in History, 1984, pp. 152–5.
105 Quoted in Sanjay Subrahmanyam, The Political Economy of Commerce: Southern India, 1500–1650, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1990, p. 7.
106 Pires, The Suma Oriental, I, pp. 41–2.
107 Horton and Middleton, The Swahili, p. 89; M.N. Pearson, Port Cities and Intruders, pp. 101–28.
108 Tampoe, Maritime Trade, p. 105.
109 Amitav Ghosh, In an Antique Land: History in the Guise of a Traveler's Tale, New York, Vintage Books, 1993, pp. 257–8.
110 Bhaswati Bhattacharya, 'The Chulia Merchants of Southern Coromandel in the Eighteenth Century: A Case for Continuity', in Prakash and Lombard, eds, Commerce and Culture, pp. 285–306; Barbara Watson Andaya, 'The Indian Saudagar Raja (the King's Merchant) in Traditional Malay Courts', Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, LI, 1978, pp. 13–35.
111 Ibn Battuta, The Travels of Ibn Battuta, II, pp. 374.
112 Ibid., II, pp. 383–4.
113 Ibid., IV, p. 826.
114 Haraprasad Ray, 'Historical Contacts between Quilon and China', in Pius Malekandathil and Jamal Mohammed, eds, The Portuguese, Indian Ocean and European Bridgeheads 1500–1800: Festschrift in Honour of Prof. K.S. Mathew, Tellicherry, Kerala, Institute for Research in Social Sciences and Humanities of MESHAR, 2001, p. 392.
115 Marco Polo, The Book of Ser Marco Polo, I, pp. 363, 367–8. The editors comment that this is quite true, and one could string together many accounts of the probity of Indian merchants over many centuries.
116 Vincent Le Blanc, The World Surveyed, London, printed for J. Starkey, 1660, p. 47. See also a long and very valuable account by Cesare Federici in Richard Hakluyt, The Principal Navigations, Glasgow, J. MacLehose, 1903, 12 vols, V, pp. 375–6.
117 Pires, The Suma Oriental, II, 273–4.
118 Barbosa, Livro, II, p. 77.
119 Ma Huan, The Overall Survey, pp. 140–3; the quotation is on p. 143.
120 Tampoe, Maritime Trade, p. 129; Buzurg ibn Shahriyar, The Book of Wonders, pp. 62–4.
121 Philip Curtin, Cross-Cultural Trade in World History, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press,1984.
122 See the following excellent study, which puts forward 'circulation' as being characteristic of Indian merchants, as compared with their being a version of a diaspora: Claude Markovits, The Global World of Indian Merchants, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2000.
123 Barendse, 'Trade and State', pp. 186–8.
124 For European parallels see Michel Mollat du Jourdin, Europe and the Sea, Oxford, Blackwell, 1993, pp. 99–100.
125 See the exemplary study: Luis Filipe F.R. Thomaz, 'Malaka et ses communautés marchandes au tournant du 16e siècle', in Lombard and Aubin, eds, Merchands et hommes d'affairs, pp. 31–48.
126 Barbosa, Livro, II, p. 76.
127 Andaya, 'Saudagar Raja', passim.
128 For general discussion see Sanjay Subrahmanyam, '"Persianization" and "Mercantialism": Two themes in Bay of Bengal History, 1400–1700', in Prakash and Lombard, eds, Commerce and Culture in the Bay of Bengal, pp. 47–85.
129 Numerous studies by Anthony Reid, such as 'An "Age of Commerce" in SE Asian History', Modern Asian Studies, 24, 1990, 1–30; J. Kathirithamby-Wells, 'Introduction', in J. Kathirithamby-Wells and John Villiers, eds, The Southeast Asian Port and Polity, Singapore, Singapore University Press, 1990, pp. 2–3.
130 Arun Das Gupta, 'The Maritime Trade of Indonesia, 1500–1800', in Ashin Das Gupta and M.N. Pearson, eds, India and the Indian Ocean, Calcutta, Oxford University Press, 1987, pp. 240–75; for a contrary view, Christopher Wake, 'Banten around the Turn of the Sixteenth Century: Trade and Society in an Indonesian Port City', in Frank Broeze, ed., Gateways of Asia: Port Cities of Asia from the 13th to the 20th Centuries, London, Kegan Paul International, 1997, pp. 66–108.
131 J. Kathirithamby-Wells, 'Introduction', passim.
132 Powys Mathers, and J.C. Mardrus, trans., The Book of the Thousand Nights and One Night, London, Routledge, 7th impression, 1949, vol. II, pp. 287–9.
133 Ibid., pp. 250, 261, 303–4. Sindbad made seven voyages, and these make up part of the very large compilation called The Book of the Thousand Nights and One Night.
134 Ghosh, Antique Land, pp. 157–8.
135 Tampoe, Maritime Trade, p. 126.
136 R.B. Serjeant, 'Yemeni Merchants and Trade in Yemen, 13th-16th Centuries', in Lombard and Aubin, eds, Marchands et hommes d'affairs, p. 69.
137 S.D. Goitein, 'From the Mediterranean to India: Documents on the trade to India, South Arabia and East Africa, from the Eleventh and Twelfth centuries', Speculum, 29, 1954, pp. 191–5.
138 S.D. Goitein, 'Portrait of a Medieval India Trader: Three Letters from the Cairo Geniza', Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, L, 1987, pp. 449–64.
139 One influential book was Theda Skocpol, ed., Bringing the State back In, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1985.
140 Ibn Battuta, The Travels of Ibn Battuta, IV, p. 865.
141 Marco Polo, The Book of Ser Marco Polo, II, pp. 389, 392.
142 Ibn Battuta, The Travels of Ibn Battuta, IV, p. 800.