143 Roderich Ptak, ed., J.V.G. Mills, trans., The Overall Survey of the Star Raft by Fei Hsin, Wiesbaden, Harrassowitz, 1996, p. 86.
144 Tibbetts, Arab Navigation, p. 202.
145 Ghosh, Antique Land, pp. 257–8.
146 Craig T. Palmer, 'The Ritual Taboos of Fishermen: An Alternative Explanation', MAST, II, 1989, pp. 59–68.
147 Ibn Battuta, The Travels of Ibn Battuta, IV, pp. 911–12.
148 F. Hirth and W.W. Rockhill, trans. and ed., Chau Ju-kua: His Work on the Chinese and Arab Trade in the Twelth and Thirteenth Centuries, Entitled Chu-fan-chi, St Petersburg, 1911 [New York, Paragon Book Reprint Corp], p. 111 and f.n. 2.
149 Ibn Battuta, The Travels of Ibn Battuta, I, pp. 25–7; for other prayers see Tibbetts, Arab Navigation, pp. 193–4.
150 Subrahmanyam in Prakash and Lombard, eds, Commerce and Culture, p. 60; John O'Kane, trans. and ed., The Ship of Sulaiman, London, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1972, p. 26.
151 Ibn Battuta, The Travels of Ibn Battuta, III, p. 393.
152 Abd-er-Razzak in R.H. Major, ed., India in the Fifteenth Century, London, Hakluyt, 1857, pp. 45–9.
153 Mathers and Mardrus, trans., Thousand Nights, pp. 260–1, 305.
154 Ibn Jubayr, India in the Fifteenth Century, pp. 66–70.
155 Abd-er-Razzak in Major, The Travels of Ibn Battuta, pp. 4, 7–8, 12–13.
156 Ibn Battuta, The Travels of Ibn Battuta, III, pp. 361, 393.
157 Ibid., pp. III, pp. 600–2.
158 Ibid., IV, p. 857.
159 Ibid., IV, p. 814.
160 Dunn, Adventures of Ibn Battuta, p. 247.
161 Ibn Battuta, The Travels of Ibn Battuta, IV, p. 826.
162 Abdul Sheriff, '"Brotherhood of the Sea"', in Rosa Maria Perez, ed., Cultures of the Indian Ocean, Lisbon, CNCDP, 1998.
5 Europeans in an Indian Ocean world
1 K.M. Panikkar, India and the Indian Ocean: An Essay on the Influence of Sea Power on Indian History, London, Allen & Unwin, 1945, p. 38.
2 Andrew C. Hess, 'The Evolution of the Ottoman Seaborne Empire in the Age of Oceanic Discoveries, 1453–1525', American Historical Review, LXXV, 1970, pp. 1892–919.
3 Dr John Fryer, A New Account of East India and Persia, London, Hakluyt, 1909–15, 3 vols, I, p. 302.
4 Jahangir, Tuzuk-i Jahangiri, London, Royal Asiatic Society, 1909–14, 2 vols, I, pp. 4 16–19.
5 R.J. Barendse, 'Trade and State in the Arabian Seas: A Survey from the Fifteenth to the Eighteenth Century', Journal of World History, XI, 2000, pp. 212–14.
6 See for an overview and more sources Om Prakash, Asia and the Pre-Modern World Economy, Leiden, University of Leiden, 1995; Om Prakash, The Dutch East India Company and the Economy of Bengal, 1630–1720, Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1985, p. 5; H.W. Van Santen, De Verenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie in Gujarat en Hindustan, 1620–1660, University of Leiden, Ph.D. thesis, 1982, pp. 206–12.
7 S.N.Banhatti, ed., Ajnapatra, Nagpur and Pune, Suvichar Prakashan Mandal, 4th edn. 1961, repr. 1986, pp. 89, 90–1.
8 See especially Ashin Das Gupta, 'Trade and Politics in 18th-century India', in D.S. Richards, ed., Islam and the Trade of Asia, Oxford, Cassirer, pp. 181–214.
9 Quoted in Basil Davidson, The Search for Africa: A History in the Making, London, James Currey, 1994, p. 12; Chandra Richard de Silva, 'Islands and Beaches: Indigenous Relations with the Portuguese in Sri Lanka after Vasco da Gama', in Anthony Disney and Emily Booth, eds, Vasco da Gama and the Linking of Europe and Asia, New Delhi, Oxford University Press, 2000, p. 283.
10 K.C. Fok, 'Early Ming Images of the Portuguese', in Roderich Ptak, ed., Portuguese Asia, Stuttgart, Steiner, 1987, p. 145.
11 Jacques Le Goff, 'The Medieval West and the Indian Ocean: An Oneiric Horizon', in his Time, Work and Culture in the Middle Ages, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1982, pp. 189–200, e.g. 195.
12 Sir John Mandeville, Mandeville's Travels, ed. M. Letts, London, Hakluyt, 1953, pp. 116–26; the quotation is on p. 117.
13 Sanjay Subrahmanyam and L.F. Thomaz, 'Evolution of Empire: The Portuguese in the Indian Ocean in the Sixteenth Century', in James Tracy, ed., The Political Economy of Merchant Empires, New York, Cambridge University Press, 1991, p. 304.
14 For these estimates see my Merchants and Rulers in Gujarat, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1976, and Coastal Western India, New Delhi, Concept, 1981. Much of my discussion of the Portuguese in this chapter draws on parts of these books, and on my The Portuguese in India, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1987. I have also of course taken account of a host of new publications which have appeared since these early efforts of mine.
15 João de Barros, Da Asia, Lisboa, Na Regia officina typografica, 1777–88, I, vi, l.
16 Michel Mollat du Jourdin, Europe and the Sea, Oxford, Blackwell, 1993, pp. 28–31.
17 M. Tull, 'Maritime History in Australia', in Frank Broeze, ed., Maritime History at the Crossroads: A Critical Review of Recent Historiography, St John's, Canada, International Maritime Economic History Association, 1996, pp. 7–8; Mark Vink, 'Mare Liberum and Dominium Maris: Legal Arguments and Implications of the Luso–Dutch Struggle for control over Asian Waters, c. 1600–1663', in K.S. Mathew, ed., Studies in Maritime History, Pondicherry, Pondicherry University, 1990, p. 48.
18 L.F. Thomaz, 'Portuguese Control over the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal: A Comparative Study', in Om Prakash and Denys Lombard, eds, Commerce and Culture in the Bay of Bengal, 1500–1800, Delhi, Manohar, 1999, pp. 117, 141, 158. See also Luis Filipe F.R. Thomaz, 'Precedents and Parallels of the Portuguese Cartaz System', in Pius Malekandethil and T. Jamal Mohammed, eds, The Portuguese, Indian Ocean and European Bridgeheads 1500–1800: Festschrift in Honour of Prof. K.S. Mathew, Tellicherry, Kerala, Institute for Research in Social Sciences and Humanities of MESHAR, 2001, pp. 67–85 for a rather unconvincing attempt to find precedents for the Portuguese system.
19 See respectively my Coastal Western India, New Delhi, 1981, p. 27; and B. Schrieke, 'The Shifts in Political and Economic Power in the Indonesian Archipelago in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Century', in Indonesian Sociological Studies, The Hague, W. van Hoeve, 1955, vol. I, pp. 26, 70.
20 Dr M.A. Muid Khan, 'Indo-Portuguese Struggle for Maritime Supremacy (As gleaned from an Unpublished Arabic Urjuza: Fathul Mubiyn)', in P.M. Joshi and M.A. Nayeem, eds, Studies in the Foreign Relations of India (From Earliest Times to 1947) Prof. H.K. Sherwani Felicitation Volume, Hyderabad, State Archives, Government of Andhra Pradesh, 1975, pp. 165–83.
21 Zain-ud-din, Tohfut-ul-Mujahideen, trans. M.J. Rowlandson, London, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland, 1833, p. 107.
22 Richard Hall, Empires of the Monsoon: A History of the Indian Ocean and its Invaders, London, HarperCollins, 1996, p. 120.
23 Bailey Diffie and George Winius, Foundations of the Portuguese Empire, 1415–1580, Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1977, pp. 224–5.
24 Thomaz, 'Portuguese control over the Arabian Sea', pp. 122–4, 158.
25 See Sanjay Subrahmanyam, The Portuguese Empire in Asia 1500–1700: A Political and Economic History, London, Longman, 1993, pp. 249–61 and other works cited there for a full discussion.
26 Lakshmi Subramanian, 'Of Pirates and Potentates: Maritime Jurisdiction and the Construction of Piracy in the Indian Ocean', in Devleena Ghosh and Stephen Muecke, eds, The UTS Review: Cultural Studies and New Writing, VI, 2, November 2000, 'The Indian Ocean', p. 21.
27 David Mitchell, Pirates, London, Thames and Hudson, 1976, p. 101.
28 Barendse, 'Trade and State', p. 191, f.n. 71. See four recent studies on this topic: Roderich Ptak, 'Piracy along the Coasts of Southwest India and Ming China', in Artur Teodoro de Matos and Luís Filipe F. Reis Thomaz, eds, As relações entre a India Portuguesa, a Asia do Sueste e o Extremo Oriente (actas do VI Seminário Internacional de História Indo-Portuguesa), Macau, no publisher, 1993, pp. 255–73; in the same publication Luis Filipe F.R. Thomaz, 'Do Cabo Espic
hel a Macau: Vicissitudes do corso Português', pp. 537–68; Patricia Risso, 'Cross-Cultural Perceptions of Piracy: Maritime Violence in the Western Indian Ocean and Persian Gulf Region during the long Eighteenth Century', Journal of World History, XII, 2001, pp. 293–319, and J.L. Anderson, 'Pirates and World History: An Economic Perspective', Journal of World History, VI, 1995, 175–199.
29 Mitchell, Pirates, p. 89.
30 Sir Thomas Bowrey, A Geographical Account of Countries Around the Bay of Bengal, Cambridge, Hakluyt, 1905, p. 262.
31 Mitchell, Pirates, pp. 107–8.
32 For all this section on the spice trade see my 'Introduction', in Spices in the Indian Ocean World, 'An Expanding World, vol. 11' Aldershot, Variorum, 1996, pp. xv-xxxvii, and the sources there cited.
33 Vitorino Magalhães Godinho, Mito e mercadoria, utopia e prática de navegar, séculos XIII-XVIII, Lisbon, Difusão Editorial, 1990, p. 331.
34 Fernand Braudel, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II, London, Collins, 1972, 2 vols, I, p. 549.
35 Generally for the Portuguese in East Africa see M.N. Pearson, Port Cities and Intruders, Baltimore, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998, pp. 129–54.
36 Pius Malekandathil, The Germans, the Portuguese and India, Munster, LIT, 1999, p. 100.
37 A.J.R. Russell-Wood, A World on the Move: The Portuguese in Africa, Asia, and America, 1415–1808, St Martin's Press, New York, 1992, p. 64, and many other examples on pp. 63–122.
38 T. Bentley Duncan, 'Navigation between Portugal and Asia in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries', in Cyriac K. Pullapilly, et al., eds, Asia and the West: Encounters and Exchanges from the Age of Explorations: Essays in Honor of Donald F. Lach, Notre Dame, Ind., Cross Roads Books, 1986.
39 João dos Santos, Ethiopia Oriental, Lisbon, Escriptorio da Empreza, 1891, 2 vols, I, pp. i, 17.
40 Diogo do Couto, Da Asia, Lisboa, Na Regia officina typografica, 1777–88, IX, cap. 22.
41 See C.R. Boxer, From Lisbon to Goa, 1500–1750: Studies in Portuguese Maritime Enterprise, Aldershot, Variorum, 1984, especially 'The Principal Ports of Call in the "Carreira da India",' and 'Moçambique Island and the "Carreira da India"', for copious detail on the Portuguese in Mozambique, their forts and their illnesses.
42 Fernão Lopes de Castanheda, História do descobrimento e conquista da India pelos Portugueses, 3rd ed., Coímbra, Impr. da Universidade, 1924–33, 9 vols, VII, pp. 87–8.
43 Generally for 'corruption' see my Coastal Western India, pp. 18–25.
44 De Barros Da Asia, I, iv, 3.
45 Gaspar Correia, Lendas da India, Lisbon, Typ. da Academia real das Sciencias, 1858–64, 4 vols, I, p. 273.
46 Vitorino Magalhães Godinho, Os descobrimentos e a economia mundial, 2nd ed., Lisbon, Editorial Presença, 1981–83, 4 vols, I, pp. 192–4.
47 Correia, Lendas da India, I, pp. 537–44.
48 Sanjay Subrahmanyam, 'Notes on the Political Economy of Portuguese Asia, 1523–1526', in Teotonio R. de Souza, ed., Vasco da Gama and India, International Conference, Lisbon, Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, 1999, 3 vols, II, pp. 47–65.
49 The activities of the northern European trading companies have been splendidly covered in two books, the first a classic, the second the best modern survey: Holden Furber, Rival Empires of Trade in the Orient, 1600–1800, Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1976; Om Prakash, European Commercial Enterprise in Pre-Colonial India, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1998. Details on all the matters sketched here will be found in these books.
50 Quoted in Devleena Ghosh and Stephen Muecke, 'Indian Ocean Stories', UTS Review, 'The Indian Ocean', ed. Ghosh and Muecke, VI, 2, November 2000, p. 28.
51 Samuel Pepys' Diary, quoted in Gillian Tindall, City of Gold: The Biography of Bombay, Harmondsworth, Penguin, 1992, p. v.
52 Denys Lombard, 'Questions on the Contact between European Companies and Asian Societies', in L. Blussé and F. Gaastra, eds, Companies and Trade, Leiden, Leiden University Press, 1981, p. 187.
53 Again, data on the spice trade is mostly from my 'Introduction' to Spices in the Indian Ocean World.
54 Excellent data in Anthony Reid, 'An "Age of Commerce" in SE Asian History', Modern Asian Studies, 24, 1990, pp. 1–30, especially p. 11.
55 Willard A. Hanna, Indonesian Banda: Colonialism and its Aftermath in the Nutmeg Islands, Philadelphia, Institute for the Study of Human Issues, 1978, p. 63, and generally for the Dutch in the Bandas.
56 Kristof Glamman, Dutch–Asiatic Trade, 1620–1740, Copenhagen, Danish Scientific Press, 1958, p. 109.
57 Mark Vink, 'The Dutch East India Company and the Pepper Trade between Kerala and Tamilnad, 1663–1795: A Geo-Historical Analysis', in K.S. Mathew, ed., Mariners, Merchants and Oceans: Studies in Maritime History, New Delhi, Manohar, 1995, pp. 274–6.
58 Els M. Jacobs, In Pursuit of Pepper and Tea: The Story of the Dutch East India Company, Amsterdam, Netherlands Maritime Museum, 1991, p. 77.
59 J. Kathirithamby-Wells, 'Introduction', in J. Kathirithamby-Wells and John Villiers, eds, The Southeast Asian Port and Polity, Singapore, Singapore University Press, 1990.
60 Om Prakash, European Commercial Enterprise.
61 Quoted in Niels Steensgaard, The Asian Trade Revolution of the Seventeenth Century: The East India Companies and the Decline of the Caravan Trade, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1974, p. 407.
62 R. Raben, 'European Periphery at the Heart of the Ocean: The Maldives, 17th–18th Centuries', in J. Everaert and J. Parmentier, eds, International Conference on Shipping, Factories and Colonization (Brussels, 24–26 November 1994), Brussels, Koninklijke Academie van Belgie, 1996.
63 Furber, Rival Empires, p. 231.
64 Prakash's numerous articles on this and related topics have been conveniently collected in Precious Metals and Commerce: The Dutch East India Company in the Indian Ocean Trade, Aldershot, Variorum, 1994.
65 S. Arasaratnam, 'Slave Trade in the Indian Ocean in the Seventeenth Century', in K.S. Mathew, ed., Mariners, Merchants and Oceans, pp. 195–208.
66 Rajat Datta, 'Markets, Bullion and Bengal's Commercial Economy: An Eighteenth Century Perspective', in Prakash and Lombard, eds, Commerce and Culture in the Bay of Bengal, p. 331.
67 Niels Steensgaard, 'The Indian Ocean Network and the Emerging World-Economy, c. 1500–1750', in Satish Chandra, ed., The Indian Ocean: Explorations in History, Commerce and Politics, New Delhi, Sage, 1987, pp. 125–50.
68 Ashin Das Gupta, 'India and the Indian Ocean in the Eighteenth Century', in Ashin Das Gupta and M.N. Pearson, eds, India and the Indian Ocean, 1500–1800, Calcutta, 1987, New Delhi, 1999, pp. 131–61, especially p. 134.
69 For this data on the Portuguese in East Africa see my Port Cities and Intruders, pp. 129–54, and the sources there cited.
70 See again Port Cities and Intruders, pp. 129–54, and my 'The Search for the Similar: Early Contacts between Portuguese and Indians', in Jens Christian V. Johansen, Erling Ladewig Petersen and Henrik Stevnsborg, eds, Clashes of Cultures: Essays in Honour of Niels Steensgaard, Odense, Odense University Press, 1992, pp. 144–59.
71 See my 'First Contacts between Indian and European Medical Systems: Goa in the Sixteenth Century', in David Arnold ed., Warm Climates and Western Medicine: The Emergence of Tropical Medicine, 1500–1900, Amsterdam, Editions Rodopi (The Wellcome Institute Series in the History of Medicine), 1996, pp. 20–41, and my 'Hindu Medical Practice in Sixteenth-Century Western India: Evidence from the Portuguese Records', Portuguese Studies, XVII, 2001, pp. 100–13 for this section, and the quotations in it.
The Indian Ocean Page 52