72 Georg Schurhammer, Francis Xavier: His Life, His Times, India, Rome, Jesuit Historical Institute, 1977, vol. II, p. 96.
73 Mrs Jemima Kindersley, Letters from the Island of Teneriffe, Brazil, The Cape of Good Hope, and the East Indies, London, J. Nourse, 1777, pp. 66–7, 169.
74 Leonard Blussé, Strange company: Chinese settlers, Mestizo Women, and the Dutch in VOC Batavia, Dordrecht and Riverton, Foris Publications, 1986.
75 G.V. Scammell, 'European Exiles, Renegades and Outlaws and the Maritime Economy of Asia, c. 1500–1750', in K.S. Mathew, ed., Mariners, Merchants and Oceans, p. 123.
76 John O'Kane, trans. and ed., The Ship of Sulaiman, London, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1972, pp. 37–40.
6 The early modern Indian Ocean world
1 Quoted in R.J. Barendse, The Arabian Seas, 1640–1700, Leiden, Research School, CNWS, Leiden University, 1998, p. 157.
2 Quoted in Gillian Tindall, City of Gold: The Biography of Bombay, Harmondsworth, Penguin, 1992, p. 102.
3 John Correia-Afonso, ed., Intrepid Itinerant: Manuel Godinho and his Journey from India to Portugal in 1663, Bombay, Oxford University Press, 1990, pp. 47–9.
4 Sir James Lancaster, The Voyage of Sir James Lancaster to Brazil and the East Indies, 1591–1603, ed. W. Foster, London, Hakluyt, 1940, pp. 3, 6.
5 John O'Kane, trans. and ed., The Ship of Sulaiman, London, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1972, pp. 181, 171.
6 Luis Filipe F.R. Thomaz, 'Malaka et ses communautés marchandes au tournant du 16e siècle', in Denys Lombard and Jean Aubin, eds, Marchands et hommes d'affairs asiatiques dans l'Océan Indien et la Mer de Chine 13e-20e siècles, Paris, Editions de l'Ecole des hautes études en sciences sociales, 1988, p. 42.
7 Quoted in M.N. Pearson, Pious Passengers: The Hajj in Earlier Times, New Delhi, Sterling, 1994, p. 71.
8 Indrani Ray, The French East India Company and the Trade of the Indian Ocean: A Collection of Essays, ed. Lakshmi Subramanian, Delhi, Oxford University Press, 1999, pp. 177–200.
9 R.J. Barendse, 'Trade and State in the Arabian Seas: A Survey from the Fifteenth to the Eighteenth Century', Journal of World History, XI, 2000, pp. 206–7.
10 O'Kane, trans. and ed., Sulaiman, p. 168. See also Correia-Afonso, ed., Godinho, pp. 117–19 for a detailed description by one who had been to both Mannar and Bahrain.
11 Sir Thomas Bowrey, A Geographical Account of Countries Around the Bay of Bengal, Cambridge, Hakluyt, 1905, pp. 73–6.
12 Jerónimo Lobo, The Itinerary of Jerónimo Lobo, trans. Donald M. Lockhart, London, Hakluyt, 1984, pp. 89–90.
13 Ashin Das Gupta, 'Gujarati Merchants and the Red Sea Trade, 1700–1725', reprinted in Uma Das Gupta, ed., The World of the Indian Ocean Merchant, 1500–1800: Collected Essays of Ashin Das Gupta, New Delhi, Oxford University Press, 2001, pp. 369–70.
14 See Levon Khatchikian, 'The Ledger of the Merchant Hovhannes Joughayetsi', in Sanjay Subrahmanyam, ed., Merchant Networks in the Early Modern World, Aldershot, Variorum, 1996, pp. 125–58.
15 Barendse, 'Trade and State,' p. 225; Michel Aghassian and Keram Kevonian, 'Le commerce arménien dans l'Océan Indien aux 17e et 18e siêcles', in Lombard and Aubin, eds, Marchands et hommes d'affairs, pp. 155–81.
16 S. Arasaratnam, 'Merchants, Commerce and the State in South India, 1650–1700', in Revista de Cultura [Macau], nos. 13/14, 1991, p. 158.
17 Bowrey, A Geographical Account, pp. 257–8. On this community see Sinnappah Arasaratnam, 'The Chulia Muslim Merchants in Southeast Asia, 1650–1800', reprinted in Subrahmanyam, ed., Merchant Networks.
18 Stephen Frederic Dale, Indian Merchants and Eurasian Trade, 1600–1750, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1994.
19 Dennis O. Flynn, 'Comparing the Tokagawa Shogunate with Hapsburg Spain: Two Silver-based Empires in a Global Setting', in James D. Tracy, ed., The Political Economy of Merchant Empires: State Power and World Trade, 1350–1750, New York, Cambridge University Press, 1991, p. 336.
20 Dennis O. Flynn and Arturo Giráldez, 'Born with a "Silver Spoon": The Origin of World Trade in 1571', Journal of World History, VI, 1995, p. 203. They seem to be unaware that Europe always retained more precious metals than it exported.
21 For an overview of the bullion trade in the Indian Ocean in the early modern period see M.N. Pearson, 'Asia and World Precious Metal Flows in the Early Modern Period', in John McGuire, Patrick Bertola and Peter Reeves, eds, Evolution of the World Economy, Precious Metals and India, Delhi, Oxford University Press, 2001, pp. 21–57.
22 M.D.D. Newitt, A History of Mozambique, 1994, London, Hurst, p. 127; John Middleton, The World of the Swahili, An African Mercantile Civilisation, New Haven, Yale University Press, 1992, p. 202, f.n. 8.
23 A.J.R. Russell-Wood, A World on the Move: The Portuguese in Africa, Asia, and America, 1415–1808, New York, St Martin's Press, 1992, pp. 159, 168–74; and by the same author 'A Brazilian Commercial Presence beyond the Cape of Good Hope, 16th-19th Centuries', in Pius Malekandathil and Jamal Mohammed, eds, The Portuguese, Indian Ocean and European Bridgeheads 1500–1800: Festschrift in Honour of Prof. K.S. Mathew, Tellicherry, Kerala, Institute for Research in Social Sciences and Humanities of MESHAR, 2001, p. 205.
24 Russell-Wood, 'Brazilian Commercial Presence', p. 194.
25 Niels Steensgaard, 'Asian Trade 15th-18th Centuries: Continuity and Discontinuities', in Fifteenth International Congress of Historical Sciences, Proceedings, Bucharest, ICHS, 1980, II, p. 497.
26 Ludovico di Varthema, The Itinerary of Ludovico di Varthema of Bologna from 1502 to 1508, ed. R.C. Temple, London, The Argonaut Press, 1928, p. 63. See also Ann G. Carmichael, 'Syphilis and the Columbian Exchange: Was the New Disease really New?', in Mario Gomes Marques and John Cule, eds, The Great Maritime Discoveries and World Health, Lisbon, Escola Nacional de Saúde Pública, Ordem dos Médicos, Instituto de Sintra, 1991, pp. 187–200.
27 Osamu Kondo, 'Japan and the Indian Ocean at the Time of the Mughal Empire, with Special Reference to Gujarat', in Satish Chandra, ed., The Indian Ocean, New Delhi, Sage, 1987, p. 175.
28 Catherine Raymond, 'Religious and Scholarly Exchanges between the Singhalese Sangha and the Arakanese and Burmese Theravadin Communities: Historical Documentation and Physical Evidence', in Om Prakash and Denys Lombard, eds, Commerce and Culture in the Bay of Bengal, 1500–1800, Delhi, Manohar, 1999, pp. 87–114.
29 See on the hajj my Pious Passengers, passim.
30 J. Kathirithamby-Wells, 'The Islamic City: Melaka to Jogjakarta, c. 1500–1800', Modern Asian Studies, XX, 1986, pp. 343–4.
31 Lobo, Itinerary, pp. 286–7.
32 Albert Gray, trans. and ed., The Voyage of François Pyrard of Laval to the East Indies, the Maldives, the Moluccas and Brazil, London, Hakluyt, 1887–90, 2 vols, I, pp. 110, 165. For the following section and the quotations in it see my Port Cities and Intruders: The Swahili Coast, India, and Portugal in the Early Modern Era, Baltimore, The Johns Hopkins University Press, chapter 5, and The Portuguese in India, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1987, chapter 5.
33 Robert C.-H. Shell, 'Islam in Southern Africa, 1652–1998', in Nehemia Levtzion and Randall L. Pouwels, eds, The History of Islam in Africa, Athens, Ohio University Press, 2000, p. 328.
34 Peregrine Horden and Nicholas Purcell, The Corrupting Sea: A Study of Mediterranean History, vol. I, Oxford, Blackwell, 2000, pp. 444, 406.
35 See Artur Teodoro de Matos, '"Quem vai ao mar em terra se avia." Preparativos e recomendações aos passageiros da Carreira de India no seculo XVII', in Artur Teodoro de Matos and Luís Filipe F. Reis Thomaz, eds, A carreira da India e as rotas dos estreitos (actas do VIII Seminario Internacional de História Indo-Portuguesa), Angra do Heroísmo, Secretaria Regional Assuntos Culturais, 1998, pp. 377–94.
36 A.R. Disney, 'Getting to the China Mission in the Early Seventeenth Century', in Artur Teodoro de Matos and Luís Filipe F. Reis Thomaz, eds, As relações entre a India Portuguesa, a Asia do Sueste e o Extremo Oriente (actas do VI Seminário Internacional de História
Indo-Portuguesa), Macau, no publisher, 1993, pp. 102–3, 105.
37 Anthony R. Disney, 'The World of Long-Distance Voyaging in the Seventeenth Century: The Lisbon–Goa fleet of 1629 as a Case Study', in K.S. Mathew, ed., Studies in Maritime History, Pondicherry, Pondicherry University, 1990, p. 150.
38 Lobo, Itinerary, pp. 300–1.
39 Quoted in Anne Bulley, The Bombay Country Ships, 1790–1833, London, Curzon, 2000, p. 231.
40 Abbé Carré, The Travels of Abbé Carré in India and the Middle East, ed. and trans. C.H. Fawcett, vol. III, London, Hakluyt, 1947, pp. 795–8.
41 Michael H. Fisher, ed., The Travels of Dean Mahomet: An Eighteenth-Century Journey through India, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1997, p. 127.
42 Correia-Afonso, ed., Godinho, p. 74 et seq.
43 Lobo, Itinerary, pp. 301–14.
44 Lancaster, Voyage, pp. 4–5.
45 Lobo, Itinerary, p. 311.
46 Abbé Carré, Travels, III, pp. 792–5.
47 O'Kane, trans. and ed., Sulaiman, p. 43.
48 Jean Aubin, 'Un voyage de Goa a Ormuz en 1520', Modern Asian Studies, XXII, 1988, pp. 417–32.
49 Indrani Ray, The French East India Company, p. 149. See also an extended account of a similar voyage by river: Mrs Jemima Kindersley, Letters from the Island of Teneriffe, Brazil, The Cape of Good Hope, and the East Indies, London, J. Nourse, 1777, pp. 92–7. Her next few pages discuss the difficulties of land travel.
50 Fisher, Dean Mahomet, p. 125.
51 Saris in Samuel Purchas, Purchas, His Pilgrimes, Glasgow, Hakluyt Society, 1905–7, 20 vols, III, 396.
52 T. Bentley Duncan, 'Navigation between Portugal and Asia in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries', in Cyriac K. Pullapilly et al., eds, Asia and the West: Encounters and Exchanges from the Age of Explorations: Essays in Honor of Donald F. Lach, Notre Dame, Ind., Cross Roads Books, 1986, p. 8.
53 See Ahsan Jan Qaisar, The Indian Response to European Technology and Culture, AD 1498–1707, Delhi, Oxford University Press, 1982, pp. 20–37 for a good summary.
54 Bowrey, A Geographical Account, pp. 102–3.
55 Michel Mollat du Jourdin, Europe and the Sea, Oxford, Blackwell, 1993, pp. 156–7; David Kirby and Merja-Liisa Hinkkanen, The Baltic and the North Seas, London, Routledge, 2000, p. 189. For Indian ships see my Pious Passengers, pp. 55–6.
56 Franceso Carletti, My Voyage Around the World, trans. Herbert Weinstock, New York, Pantheon Books, 1965, pp. 185–6.
57 G.V. Scammell, 'Seafaring in the Estado da India c. 1500–1700', in Teotonio R. de Souza and Charles J. Borges, eds, Mare Liberum, no. 9, 1977, 'Portuguese India and its Northern Province, Proceedings of the 7th International Seminar on Indo-Portuguese History'.
58 Russell-Wood, World on the Move, p. 58.
59 Els M. Jacobs, In Pursuit of Pepper and Tea: The Story of the Dutch East India Company, Amsterdam, Netherlands Maritime Museum, 1991.
60 Duncan, 'Navigation between Portugal and Asia', p. 6.
61 Jeremy Green, 'Maritime Archaeology and the Indian Ocean', Great Circle, II, April 1980, p. 6.
62 Duncan, 'Navigation between Portugal and Asia', pp. 6–13.
63 Fernand Braudel, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II, London, Collins, 1972, p. 358.
64 Jaap R. Bruijn, 'Between Batavia and the Cape: Shipping Patterns of the Dutch East India Company', Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, XI, September 1980, p. 260.
65 Lian Brockey, Brown University, personal communication.
66 Disney, 'The World of Long-Distance voyaging', p. 151.
67 C.R. Boxer, '"For Love of Gain"', Hemisphere, XXIII, 3, 1979, pp. 134.
68 Carletti, My Voyage, p. 228.
69 Boxer, '"For Love of Gain"', p. 135.
70 See generally Disney, 'The World of Long-Distance Voyaging', and Scammell, 'Seafaring in the Estado da India'.
71 See Matos and Thomaz, eds, A carreiera da India, for numerous studies.
72 A. Jan Qaisar, 'From Port to Port: Life on Indian Ships in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries', in Ashin Das Gupta and M.N. Pearson, eds, India and the Indian Ocean, 1500–1800, Calcutta, Oxford University Press, 1987, pp. 331–49.
7 Britain and the ocean
1 Paul Butel, The Atlantic, London, Routledge, 1999, p. 260.
2 Hermann Kellenbenz, 'German Trade Relations with the Indian Ocean from the End of the Eighteenth Century to 1870', Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, XIII, March 1982, pp. 135–6; Hermann Kellenbenz, 'Shipping and Trade between Hamburg-Bremen and the Indian Ocean, 1870–1914', Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, XIII, September 1982, p. 352.
3 Emma Tompsitt, A Diary of My Voyage from London to Sydney, 19th July to 18th September, 1884, Melbourne, printed by Chas. Troedel & Co., 1884, p. 23.
4 George Curzon, Persia and the Persian Question, London, Longmans, Green & Co, 1892, 2 vols, I, p. iv. Curzon was not even very important at this time: he was much worse once he became Viceroy of India. Sugata Bose also quotes Curzon in his stunning and provocative essay 'Space and Time in the Indian Ocean Rim: Theory and History', in Leila Tarazi Fawaz and C.A. Bayly, eds, Modernity and Culture: From the Mediterranean to the Indian Ocean, New York, Columbia University Press, 2002, pp. 365–88.
5 Lady Isabel Burton, A.E.I. Arabia, Egypt, India: A Narrative of Travel, London, W. Mullan and Son, 1879, pp. 92–3.
6 Om Prakash, 'European Corporate Enterprises and the Politics of Trade in India, 1600–1800', in Rudrangshu Mukherjee and Lakshmi Subramanian, eds, Politics and Trade in the Indian Ocean World: Essays in Honour of Ashin Das Gupta, Delhi, Oxford University Press, 1998, p. 177.
7 Om Prakash, 'The European Factories in India', in J. Everaert and J. Parmentier, eds, International Conference on Shipping, Factories and Colonization (Brussels, 24–26 November 1994), Brussels, Koninklijke Academie van Belgie, 1996, pp. 19–20 and passim.
8 Lakshmi Subramanian, 'Power and the Weave: Weavers, Merchants and Rulers in Eighteenth-Century India', in Mukherjee and Subramanian, eds, Politics and Trade, pp. 52–82.
9 Butel, The Atlantic, p. 229.
10 Lewis R. Fischer and Gerald E. Panting, 'Indian Ports and British Intercontinental Sailing Ships: The Subcontinent as an Alternative Source of Cargo, 1870–1900', in K.S. Mathew, ed., Mariners, Merchants and Oceans: Studies in Maritime History, New Delhi, Manohar, 1995, pp. 371–84.
11 Mariam Dossal, 'Indian Maritime Historiography: West Coast Merchants in a Gobalizing Economy', in Frank Broeze, ed., Maritime History at the Crossroads: A Critical Review of Recent Historiography, St Johns, NFLD, International Maritime Economic History Association, 1996, pp. 191–2.
12 Doug McLean, 'Complex Relationship: Shippers and Shipowners in India's Overseas Liner Shipping, c. 1890–c.1925', New Directions in Maritime History, ICMH/AAMH Conference, Fremantle, 6–10 December 1993, typescript.
13 Frank Broeze, Kenneth McPherson and Peter Reeves, 'Imperial Ports of the Indian Ocean,' UNESCO Review, 10 March 1985, p. 2.
14 For excellent overviews see Frank Broeze, 'The Ports and Port System of the Asian Seas: An Overview with Historical Perspective from c. 1750', Great Circle, XVIII, 1996, pp. 73–96; Peter Reeves, Frank Broeze and Kenneth McPherson, 'The Maritime Peoples of the Indian Ocean Region since 1800', Mariner's Mirror, 74, 1988, pp. 241–54; K. McPherson, F. Broeze, P. Reeves and J. Wardrop, 'The Social Expansion of the Maritime World of the Indian Ocean: Passenger Traffic and Community Building', in K. Friedland, ed., The Maritime Aspects of Migration, Cologne, Bohlau, 1987, pp. 427–40; and especially important an outstanding essay by S. Bhattacharya, 'The Indian Ocean in the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries', in Satish Chandra, ed., The Indian Ocean: Explorations in History, Commerce and Politics, New Delhi, Sage, 1987, pp. 302–16.
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