61. “Keeping Perspective” Minneapolis Tribune April 6 1960.
62. “Challenges Expenses of Kenny Fund”; “Questionable Drives for ‘Charity’ ” Chicago Tribune April 6 1960; “Irregularities Are Charged In Sister Kenny Fund Drive”; “Kenny Fund Accused of Misusing Money” Chicago Tribune June 28 1960; “Funds for Polio Found Diverted” New York Times June 28 1960. B. C. Gamble, a local businessman, was chosen as KF president along with 6 new directors; Huenkens was not invited to the directors’ meeting to discuss the report.
63. Cohn Sister Kenny, 245–246; “The Kenny Report” Chicago Tribune July 6 1960; “Ex-Kenny Fund Official Faces Theft Charges” Chicago Tribune July 30 1960; “Kenny Fund Sues 2 Former Aides” New York Times August 12 1960; “Suit Filed to Recover Millions in Kenny Funds” Chicago Tribune August 12 1960.
64. “4 Chicagoans Indicted for Kenny Fraud” Chicago Tribune January 31 1962; “3 Kenny Foundation Ex-Officials Indicted” Washington Post January 31 1962; “Convict 5 in Kenny Fraud” Chicago Tribune May 30 1963; “5 Convicted of Defrauding Sister Kenny Foundation” New York Times May 30 1963; “Kline Gets 10 Years In Kenny Fund Fraud” Washington Post April 6 1961; “Settlement Taken By Kenny Fund” Washington Post October 11 1963; “Kenny Suit Settled for 1 Million Dollars” Chicago Tribune January 8 1966.
65. Robert H. Hamlin Voluntary Health and Welfare Agencies in the United States: An Exploratory Study (New York: Schoolmaster’s Press, 1961); Emma Harrison “Ribicoff Advises Charity Agencies” New York Times September 15 1961.
66. Local reporters published Krusen’s salary; at the KF he was making $35,000 a year; at the Mayo Clinic he had made $34,600 in 1958 and $34,700 in 1959; “Dr. Krusen Reviews Kenny Plans” Minneapolis Star November 10 1960; Daniel J. Hafrey “He’s Rehabilitating the Rehabilitators” Minneapolis Sunday Tribune October 23 1961.
67. “Krusen to Head Kenny Institute” [Rochester, MN] Post-Bulletin September 9 1960; Bob Murphy “Doctor Honored by 37 Awards” Minneapolis Star August 18 1960; “Dr. Frank Krusen of Mayo Clinic, 75” New York Times September 18 1973; G. Keith Stillwell “In Memoriam: Frank H. Krusen, M.D. 1898–1973” Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation (1973) 54: 493–495. Krusen, who had become head of the Minnesota State Board of Health, had just returned from Washington, D.C. where he had assisted the federal Office of Vocational Rehabilitation.
68. Cohn Sister Kenny, 251–252; “Dr. Krusen Given Distinguished Service Award” JAMA (July 5 1958) 167: 1250; “Dr. Frank Krusen Dies at Cape Cod Home” JAMA (October 29 1973) 226: 523–524. He died in 1973.
69. Cohn Sister Kenny, 251–252; Paul Elwood in Health Inquiry (Poliomyelitis) [Part 3 October 6 1953], 638–642; see also “Paul M. Ellwood, Jr., MD. In First Person: An Oral History” interviewed by Anthony R. Kovner, September 16 2010, Hospital Administration Oral History Collection (Chicago: Health Research and Educational Trust, 2011); http://www.aha.org/aha/resource-center/Center-for-Hospital-and-Health-Administration-History/Ellwood%20–%20FINAL%20–%20050211.pdf, accessed 8/6/2011.
70. “Sister Kenny Foundation Changes Name” Chicago Tribune January 29 1965.
71. Morris Fishbein Morris Fishbein, M.D.: An Autobiography (New York: Doubleday, 1969), 229–234.
72. John K. Alexander “Saul Benison” [AHA] Perspectives (October 2007) http://www.historians.org/perspectives/issues/2007/0710/0710mem1.cfm, accessed 11/25/2012; “In Memorandum: Saul Benison (1920–2006)” Bulletin of the History of Medicine (2008) 82: 42–423; Saul Benison “Reflections on Oral History” American Archivist (1965) 28: 71–77. Benison had worked as an oral historian at Columbia University and then accepted a position in the history department of the University of Cincinnati.
73. F. L. Horsfall “Thomas Milton Rivers, September 3, 1888–May 12, 1962” Biographical Memoirs National Academy of Sciences (1965) 38: 263–94; see also Saul Benison “The History of Polio Research in the United States: Appraisal and Lessons” in Gerald Holton ed. The Twentieth-Century Sciences: Studies in the Biography of Ideas (New York: W.W. Norton and Co., 1972), 308–343.
74. Saul Benison Tom Rivers: Reflections on a Life in Medicine and Science (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1967), 282–284.
75. Francis MacFarlane Burnet Changing Patterns: An Atypical Autobiography (Melbourne: William Heinemann, 1968), 165–168.
76. [Cohn fourth interview with] John Pohl, August 27 1963, Cohn Papers, MHS-K; John Pohl to Dear Vic [Cohn], July 29 1967, Cohn Papers, MHS-K.
77. There is a brief reference to the Kendalls’ PHS bulletin, described as an effort “on the part of the U.S. Public Health Service” to combat the widespread tendency of splinting limbs “to excess”; Paul A History, 338.
78. Paul A History, 336, 342–343.
79. Paul A History, 340–344.
80. Editorial [Robert Bennett] “The Contribution to Physical Medicine of Our Experience With Poliomyelitis” Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation (September 1969) 50: 524.
81. Editor’s Note, Walter I. Galland “The Post-Paralytic Treatment of Poliomyelitis From the Orthopedic Standpoint” [abridged from] Archives of Physical Therapy (1932), [reprinted in] Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation (September 1969) 50: 525.
82. Ghormley et al. “Evaluation of the Kenny Treatment of Infantile Paralysis” [abridged from] JAMA (June 17 1944) [reprinted in] Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation (September 1969) 50: 531–535; Miland E. Knapp “The Contribution of Sister Elizabeth Kenny to the Treatment of Poliomyelitis” [abridged from] Archives of Physical Medicine (August 1955), [reprinted in] Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation (September 1969) 50: 535–542.
83. Cohn Sister Kenny, 247–250; Mr. Mondale “Sister Kenny” Congressional Record—Senate August 7 1972, S12907, Biographical Data, MHS-K.
84. Cohn Sister Kenny, 20–23.
85. Cohn Sister Kenny, 10, 30, 100.
86. Cohn Sister Kenny, 3, 7–8, 36.
87. Audrey B. Davis “[review] Sister Kenny” Clio Medica (1976) 11: 206.
88. Glenda Riley “[review Sister Kenny]” South Dakota History (fall 1976) 6: 482–483, Cohn Papers, MHS-K.
89. Marjorie C. Meehan “Sister Kenny [review Sister Kenny]” JAMA (May 31 1976) 235: 2435.
90. Sonya Rudikoff “Using Her Intuition in A Crusade Against Polio” [review Sister Kenny] Washington Post March 4 1976.
91. J. A. Myers to Dear Maurice [Visscher], May 6 1971, Box 19, Folder 1, Myers Papers, UMN-ASC; see Meyers “Poliomyelitis (Infantile Paralysis) in Minnesota Including the Elizabeth Kenny Episode,” Box 19, Sister Kenny Institute 1938–1946, Myers Papers, UMN-ASC.
92. Myers to Dear Harold [Miller], September 8 1960, Box 19, Folder 1, Myers Papers, UMN-ASC.
93. “[Report of] Board of Directors Meeting” Bulletin of the Hennepin County Medical Society (December 1960) 31: 532; Thomas P. Cook to Dear Doctor Miller, November 23 1960, Box 19, Folder 1, Myers Papers, UMN-ASC; Myers to Dear Maurice [Visscher], June 29 1960, Box 19, Folder 1, Myers Papers, UMN-ASC.
94. Myers “Poliomyelitis (Infantile Paralysis) in Minnesota Including the Elizabeth Kenny Episode,” 24–25, 28, 45.
95. Myers to Dear John [Moe], December 8 1977, Box 19, Folder 3, Myers Papers, UMN-ASC.
96. Maurice [Visscher] to Dear Jay [Myers], April 21 1977, Box 21, Myers Papers, UMN-ASC.
97. Harold S. Diehl “Jay Arthur Myers: Teacher, Colleague, Friend” Diseases of the Chest (1968) 53: 666; “Deaths: Jay Arthur Myers, World-Renowned Tuberculosis Expert” American Journal of Public Health (1979) 69: 190.
98. “Sister Kenny Hospital for Polio Patients Closes” Chicago Tribune December 26 1957.
99. “TV: C.B.S. Turns ‘Waltons’ Into ‘Easter Story’ ” New York Times April 19 1973; “Today’s Best Bets” Los Angeles Times April 19 1973.
100. Anne Roiphe “The Waltons: Ma and Pa and John-Boy in Mythic America” New York Times November 18 1973.
101. Aaron E. Klein Trial By Fury: The Polio Vaccine Controversy (New York: Charle
s Scribner’s Sons, 1972), 43–45.
102. “Basil O’Connor, Polio Fighter, Dies” Washington Post March 10 1972; Alden Whitman “Basil O’Connor, Polio Crusader, Died” New York Times March 10 1972.
103. McCandlish Phillips “March of Dimes Is Now Paying Basil O’Connor for His Services” New York Times February 12 1965.
104. “Memorial for Basil O’Connor Is Attended by 200” New York Times March 14 1972; “Basil O’Connor, Polio Fighter, Dies.”
105. Harvey Katz “The Cool Hand of Charity” Washington Post/Times Herald December 24 1972.
106. Rebecca L. Craik “Editor’s Postscript: Florence P. Kendall, PT” Physical Therapy (March 2006) 26: 336; K. G. Hansson “[Review] Henry O. Kendall, Florence P. Kendall, and Dorothy A. Boynton Posture and Pain (Baltimore: The Williams & Wilkins Co., 1952)” in Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery (April 1956) 38: 473.
107. Lucie P. Lawrence “Florence Kendall: What a Wonderful Journey” PT Magazine of Physical Therapy (2000) 8: 42. See also [advertisement] Kendall et al.: Posture And Pain [in] American Journal of Physical Medicine (December 1961) 40: n.p., Kendall Collection.
108. Lawrence “Florence Kendall: What a Wonderful Journey,” 45. She died in 2006; Matt Schudel “[Obituary] Physical Therapist Florence P. Kendall” Washington Post February 5 2006.
109. Michele Wojciechowski “Remembering Florence Kendall” Proficio (2006) 15: 3.
110. Florence P. Kendall “Sister Elizabeth Kenny Revisited” Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation (1998) 79: 361–365. According to Kendall, Kenny’s theory of mental alienation “gave false hope to many victims.” I contacted Kendall after this article appeared and interviewed her in her home in Silver Springs, Maryland where she showed me these sources and spoke clearly and antagonistically about Kenny; Kendall, interviews with Rogers, April 26 and April 27 1999, Silver Springs, Maryland.
111. For a nuanced reading of polio publications such as the [Warm Springs] Wheelchair Review and the [Cleveland] Toomey j. Gazette see Jacqueline Foertsch Bracing Accounts: The Literature and Culture of Polio in Postwar America (Madison, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 2008).
112. Oshinksy Polio, 282–285; see also Victor Cohn “Recurrent Polio Strikes Victims of Epidemics” Washington Post May 26 1984.
113. Daniel J. Wilson Living with Polio: The Epidemic and Its Survivors (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005); Richard L. Bruno The Polio Paradox: Understanding and Treating ‘Post-Polio Syndrome’ and Chronic Fatigue (New York: Warner Books, 2002); Lauro Halstead Managing Post Polio: A Guide to Living And Aging Well with Post-Polio Syndrome (Washington, DC: National Rehabilitation Hospital Press, 2006); Julie K. Silver Post-Polio: A Guide for Polio Survivors and Their Families (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2011).
114. John Toomey had disliked Kenny and felt her work overshadowed his own, but, reflecting Toomey’s eminence in his home town, after he died in 1950 the polio rehabilitation center connected to Cleveland’s infectious disease hospital was renamed the Toomey Rehabilitation Pavilion. His name gained lasting recognition when Gini Laurie founded the Toomeyville j. Gazette in 1955, a newsletter that linked together polio survivors and became one of the nodes of the postwar disability rights movement.
115. Rosemarie Garland Thomson “Imaging FDR: Separate Still” Ragged Edge Online (2001) issue 2; http://www.ragged-edge-mag.com/0301/0301ft3.htm, accessed 8/17/2011; Oshinksy Polio, 284–285; Rosemarie Garland Thomson “The FDR Memorial: Who Speaks From the Wheelchair?” Chronicle of Higher Education January 26 2001; Kim E. Nielsen “Memorializing FDR” OAH Magazine of History (2013) 27: 23–26.
116. Bruno The Polio Paradox, 73.
117. Robert F. Hall Through the Storm: A Polio Story (St. Cloud, MN: North Star Press, 1990), 6–7.
118. Nudelman and Willingham Healing the Blues (1997) quoted in Wilson Living with Polio, 56–57.
119. Pohl and Kenny, The Kenny Concept of Infantile Paralysis, 87–94.
120. Hall Through the Storm, 8.
121. Bruno The Polio Paradox; Wilson Living with Polio. On sexual abuse by doctors and by orderlies, see Bruno The Polio Paradox, 76–77.
122. Bruno The Polio Paradox, 74. Bruno argued that “Kenny’s preeminence and her own dogmatism blotted out at least equally effective and more humane treatments for polio, such as the procedures developed by the Kendalls a decade earlier,” a view that probably came from his reading of Kendall “Sister Elizabeth Kenny Revisited,” 361–365.
123. Pohl and Kenny The Kenny Concept of Infantile Paralysis, 175.
124. Suzane Fabian and Morag Loh “Elizabeth Kenny 1880–1952: Nurse, Pioneer Therapist, Inventor” in The Change[-]makers: Ten Significant Australian Women (Milton, Queensland: Jacaranda Press, 1983), 131–142. See also George Blaikie “Sister Elizabeth Kenny: A Bold Crusader Against Polio” Australian Women’s Weekly (November 1984) 52: 346–347; Jim Bowditch “Bush Nurse’s Magnificent Obsession: Sister Kenny a Polio Angel” Sunday Sun [Magazine] October 16 1988, 2, Kenny Collection, Box 18, Fryer Library; George Blaikie “Sister Elizabeth Kenny: Controversial Crusader Against Polio” in Great Women of History (Broadway, New South Wales: John Fairfax Marketing, 1984), 117–118. For examples of the lack of attention to Kenny see Helen Gregory A Tradition of Care: A History of Nursing at the Royal Brisbane Hospital (Brisbane: Boolarong Publication, 1988); it has no discussion of Kenny in the text but does include a photograph of her; Elizabeth Burchill Australian Nurses since Nightingale 1860–1990 (Richmond: Spectrum Publications, 1992) has no mention of Kenny.
125. Alan Alda in Woman’s Day March 13 1980, quoted in Fabian and Loh “Elizabeth Kenny 1880–1952: Nurse, Pioneer Therapist, Inventor,” 131–142; see for example Alan Alda Never Have Your Dog Stuffed: And Other Things I’ve Learned (New York: Random House, 2005), 19–20.
126. John R. Wilson Through Kenny’s Eyes: An Exploration of Sister Elizabeth Kenny’s Views about Nursing (Townsville: Royal College of Nursing Australia, 1995).
127. Rewind ABC-TV “Sister Kenny: Saint or Charlatan?” August 29 2004; abc.net.au/tv/rewind/txt/s1184925.htm, accessed 9/29/2005.
128. “Memorial to Sister Kenny” Melbourne Age September 20 1961; http://www.post-polionetwork.org.au/particles/part13.pdf, accessed 1/10/2013; Toowoomba Sundial http://jhwagner.com.au/sister-kenny-memorial.php, accessed 1/10/2013.
129. http://www.post-polionetwork.org.au/particles/part13.pdf, accessed 1/10/2013.
130. “Sister Kenny Recalled on ‘100th’ Birthday—and Again Famous Founder Has Upper Hand” Minneapolis Star September 20 1986.
131. Leonard G. Wilson Medical Revolution in Minnesota: A History of the University of Minnesota (St. Paul: Midewiwin Press, 1989), 357–365.
132. Emily Crofford Healing Warrior: A Story about Sister Elizabeth Kenny (Minneapolis: Carolrhoda Books, 1989), 50.
133. Nancy Rehkamp to Dear Friend of Sister Kenny Institute, February 18 1992, Chris Sharpe Collection, in author’s possession; “Major 1992 PR Activities in Conjunction with 50th Anniversary,” Chris Sharpe Collection, in author’s possession. On the Institute’s merger with Abbott-Northwestern Hospital and then the Allina hospital system see http://www.allina.com/ahs/ski.nsf/page/aboutus, accessed 1/10/2013; B. Lee Ligon “Sister Elizabeth Kenny: A Controversial Participant in the War against Polio” Seminars in Pediatric Infectious Diseases (October 2000) 11: 287–291, 290. It is now the Sister Kenny Rehabilitative Institute.
134. Henry W. Haverstock, letter to editor, “Russia and Sister Kenny” [Minneapolis newspaper], August 10 1993, Cohn Papers, MHS-K.
135. Mary and Stuart McCracken, interviews with Rogers, November 1992, Caloundra, Queensland.
136. “Fighting Polio with ‘Gentle Hands’ ” by Dan Olson, Minnesota Public Radio, August 22, 2002; http://news.minnesota.publicradio.org/features/200208/22_olsond_sisterkinney/part4.shtml, accessed 9/22/2011.
137. Kate Roberts Minnesota 150: The People, Places, and Things That Shape Our State (St: Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press
, 2007), 96–97.
138. Annette Atkins “Facing Minnesota” Daedalus: Minnesota: A Different America? (2000) 129: 45–46.
139. Minnesota History Theatre “Sister Kenny’s Children,” http://www.historytheatre.com/shows/2009-2010/sister_kenny.asp, accessed 9/22/11; see also Bev Wolfe “Claudia Wilkens Gives a Commanding Performance in ‘Sister Kenny’s Children’ ” Twin Cities Daily Planet January 28 2010. The Play Guide listed Cohn’s biography, the ABC and the MPR broadcasts, Kenny’s 2 autobiographies, and one of her textbooks.
140. Kenny My Battle and Victory: History of the Discovery of Poliomyelitis as a Systemic Disease (London: Robert Hale, 1955), 10. The correct quotation is “He that of greatest works is finisher/Oft does them by the weakest minister”; William Shakespeare All’s Well That Ends Well, Act 2, Scene i.
141. A. L. Baron Man Against Germs (London: Scientific Book Club, 1958), 126–129.
142. For one effort at addressing some aspects of this issue see Rogers “The Debate Considered” Australian Historical Studies (2000) 31: 163–166.
143. One major exception to this is the history of drugs; see Elizabeth Siegel Watkins and Andrea Tone eds. Medicating Modern America: Prescription Drugs in History (New York: New York University Press, 2007); Jeremy A. Greene Prescribing By Numbers: Drugs and the Definition of Disease (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007); Robert Bud Penicillin: Triumph and Tragedy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007); John E. Lesch The First Miracle Drugs: How the Sulfa Drugs Transformed Medicine (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007).
144. Charles A. Wolverton in Health Inquiry (Poliomyelitis) [Part 3 October 6 1953], 608.
145. Gaylord Anderson in Health Inquiry (Poliomyelitis) [Part 3 October 6 1953], 611–621.
FURTHER READING
For polio after 1945 see Richard L. Bruno The Polio Paradox: Understanding and Treating ‘Post-Polio Syndrome’ and Chronic Fatigue (New York: Warner Books, 2002); Nancy Baldwin Carter Snapshots: Polio Survivors Remember (Omaha: NPSA Press, 2002); Thomas M. Daniel and Frederick C. Robbins eds. Polio (Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, 1997); Jacqueline Foertsch Bracing Accounts: The Literature and Culture of Polio in Postwar America (Madison, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 2008); Lauro Halstead Managing Post Polio: A Guide to Living And Aging Well with Post-Polio Syndrome (Washington, DC: National Rehabilitation Hospital Press, 2006); Lauro Halstead and Gunnar Grimby Post-Polio Syndrome (Philadelphia: Hanley and Belfus, 1995); Edmund J. Sass ed. Polio’s Legacy: An Oral History (New York: University Press of America, Inc., 1996); Richard K. Scotch From Good Will to Civil Rights: Transforming Disability Policy (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1984); Richard K. Scotch “Politics and Policy in the History of the Disability Rights Movement” Milbank Quarterly (1989) (supplement part 2) 67: 380–400; Nina Gilden Seavey, Jane S. Smith, and Paul Wagner A Paralyzing Fear: The Triumph Over Polio in America (New York: TV Books, 1998); Marc Shell Polio and Its Aftermath: The Paralysis of Culture (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2005); Julie K. Silver Post-Polio: A Guide for Polio Survivors and Their Families (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2011); Daniel J. Wilson “Braces, Wheelchairs, and Iron Lungs: The Paralyzed Body and the Machinery of Rehabilitation in the Polio Epidemics” Journal of Medical Humanities (2005) 26: 188–190; Daniel J. Wilson Living with Polio: The Epidemic and Its Survivors (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005).
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