by Edmund Burke
From the port of La Vera Cruz it is that the great wealth of Mexico is poured out upon all the old world; and it is from this port alone, that they receive the numberless luxuries and necessaries that the old world yields them in return. To this port the annual fleet from Cadiz, called the flota, arrives about the latter end of November, after a passage of nine weeks. This fleet, which sails only from Cadiz, consists of about three men of war as a convoy, and fourteen or fifteen large merchant ships, from four hundred to one thousand tuns burthen. They are loaded almost with every sort of goods which Europe produces for export; all sorts of woollens, linens, silks, velvets, laces, glass, paper, cutlery, all sorts of wrought iron, watches, clocks, quicksilver, horse furniture, shoes, stockings, books, pictures, military stores, wines and fruits, so that all the trading parts of Europe are highly interested in the cargo of this fleet. Spain itself sends out little more than the wine and fruit. This, with the freight and commissions to the merchant, and the duty to the king, is almost all the advanvantage which that kingdom derives from her commerce with the Indies. It is strictly prohibited to load any commodities on board this fleet without entering the goods, the value, and the owner’s name, in the India house at Seville; and when they return, they must bring a certificate from the proper officer there, that the goods were duly landed, and in the proper port. They are not permitted to break bulk upon any account until they arrive at La Vera Cruz, nor are they suffered to take in any other than Spanish passengers, nor them without a licence first obtained at the India house.
Jealousy is the glaring character of the court of Spain, in whatever regards their American empire; and they often sacrifice the prosperity to an excessive regard to the security of their possessions. They attend in this trade principally to two objects; the exclusion of all strangers from any share in it, and the keeping up the market for such goods as they send; and they think both these ends best answered by sending out only one annual fleet, and that from one only port in Spain, and to one port only in Mexico. These views, which would be impolitic in any power in Europe besides, are judicious enough in Spain; because the goods they send belonging mostly to strangers, and the profits upon the sale in the Indies being the only thing that really accrues to themselves, it is certainly right to consult primarily how they shall get the greatest returns upon the smallest quantity of goods. It would be quite otherwise, if all, or most of what they send abroad, were their own produce or manufacture. They are undoubtedly right too in keeping the trade very carefully to themselves, though perhaps the means taken to attain this end, will not be thought so rational. By suffering all the trade to be carried on only between two ports, they discourage in the old world all their towns from that emulation, which would not only enable them to traffic in foreign commodities, but in time to set up fabrics of their own; whereas now, with regard to the export of their commodities, they stand upon the level of strangers; they cannot carry their produce directly to the best market; and it is very certain, that even trifling discouragements operate very powerfully where the commercial spirit is weak, and the trade in it’s infancy. Again; in the new world, this confinement of the trade encourages interlopers, and an illicit commerce, too gainful for any regulations to prevent, and which may afford such bribes as will disarm the most rigid justice, and lull the most attentive vigilance. So that in reality it may greatly be doubted, whether the precautions, so systematically pursued, and improved from time to time with so much care and foresight, are at bottom of most advantage or prejudice to that nation. It was probably some consideration of this kind, that first gave rise to the custom of register ships: it was found that this confined commerce supplied it’s extensive object very imperfectly; and that those who were at watch to pour in counterband goods, would take advantage of this want of a regular supply from Spain. When therefore a company of merchants of Cadiz or Seville, judge that goods must be wanting at any certain port in the West-Indies, the course is, to petition the council of the Indies for licence to send a ship of three hundred tuns, or under, to that port. They pay for this licence forty or fifty thousand dollars, besides presents to the officers, in proportion to the connivance necessary to their design; for though the licence runs to three hundred tuns at the utmost, the vessel fitted out is seldom really less than six hundred. This ship and cargo is registered at the pretended burthen. It is required too, that a certificate be brought from the king’s officer at the port to which the register ship is bound, that she does not exceed the size at which she is registered; all this passes of course; these are what they call register ships, and by these the trade of Spanish America has been carried on principally for some years past, some think as much to the prejudice of their trade, as contrary to all their former maxims in carrying it on. But to return to the flota.
When all the goods are landed, and disposed of at La Vera Cruz, the fleet takes in the plate, precious stones, cochineal, indigo, cacao, tobacco, sugar, and hides, which are their returns for Old Spain. Sometimes in May, but more frequently in August, they are ready to depart. From La Vera Cruz they sail to the Havanna in the isle of Cuba, which is the place of rendezvous where they meet the galleons; another fleet which carries on all the trade of Terra Firma by Carthagena, and of Peru by Panama and Portobello, in the same manner that the flota serves for that of New Spain. When they arrive at this port, and join the galleons and the register ships that collect at the same port from all quarters, some of the cleanest and best sailing of their vessels are dispatched to Spain, with advice of the contents of these several fleets, as well as with treasure and goods of their own, that the court may judge what indulto or duty is proper to be laid on them, and what convoy is necessary for their safety. These fleets generally make some stay at the Havanna before all the ships that compose them are collected and ready to sail. As soon as this happens they quit the Havanna, and beat through the gulph of Florida, and passing between the Bahama islands, they hold their course to the North-East, until they come to the height of St. Augustin, and then steer away to Old Spain. When the flota has left La Vera Cruz, it has no longer the appearance of a place of consequence; it is a town in a very unhealthy situation, inhabited scarcely by any but Indians, Meztezes, or negroes. All the merchants of any consequence reside at some distance, at a place called Los Angelos. This town may contain about three thousand inhabitants.
CHAP. VI.
THE inhabitants of New Spain are composed of people of three different races; whites, Indians, and negroes, or the several mixtures of those. The whites are either born in Old Spain, or they are Creoles; those who are native Spaniards are mostly in offices, or in trade, and have the same character and manners with the Spaniards of Europe; the same gravity of behaviour, the same natural sagacity and good sense, the same indolence, and a yet greater share of pride and stateliness; for here they look upon the being natives of Old Spain as a very honourable distinction, and are in return looked upon by the Creoles with no small share of hatred and envy. The latter have little of that firmness and patience which makes one of the finest parts of the character of the native Spaniard. They have little courage, and are universally weak and effeminate. Living as they do in a constant enervating heat, surfeited with wealth, and giving up their whole time to loitering and inactive pleasures, they have nothing bold or manly to fit them for making a figure in active life; and few or none have any taste for the satisfactions of a learned retirement. Luxurious without variety or elegance, and expensive with great parade, and little conveniency, their general character is no more than a grave and specious insignificance.
They are temperate at their tables and in their cups, but from idleness and constitution, their whole business is amour and intrigue; these they carry on in the old Spanish taste, by doing and saying extravagant things, by bad music, worse poetry, and excessive expences. Their ladies are little celebrated for their chastity or domestic virtues; but they are still a good deal restrained by the old-fashioned etiquette, and they exert a genius whichi is not contemptible, i
n combating the restrants which that lays them under.
The clergy are extremely numerous, and their wealth and influence cannot be doubted among so rich and superstitious a people. It is said, that they actually possess a fourth of the revenues of that whole kingdom; which, after all abatements, certainly amounts to several millions. And as to their numbers, it is not extravagant to say, that priests, monks, and nuns of all orders, are upwards of one fifth of all the white people, both here and in the other parts of Spanish America. But the clergy here being too ignorant in general to be able instructors by their preaching, and too loose and debauched in their own manners to instruct by their example, the people are little the better for their numbers, wealth or influence. Many of them are no other than adventurers from Old Spain, who without regard to their character or their vows, study nothing but how to raise a sudden fortune, by abusing the ignorance and extreme credulity of the people. A great deal of attention is paid to certain mechanical methods of devotion. Moral duties are little talked of. An extreme veneration for saints, lucrative to the orders they have founded, or are supposed to patronize, is strongly inculcated, and makes the general subject of their sermons, designed rather to raise a stupid admiration of their miracles, than an imitation of the sanctity of their lives. However, having said this, it must be considered as all general observations, with the reasonable allowances; for many of the dignified clergy, and others among them, understand, and practise the duties of their station, and some whole orders, as that of the jesuits, are here as they are elsewhere, distinguishable for their learning, and the decency of their behaviour And certainly, with all their faults, in one respect their zeal is highly commendable; that they are the cause of several charitable foundations; and that they bring the Indians and blacks into some knowledge of religion, and in some measure mitigate their slavery. This too has a good political effect, for those slaves are more faithful than ours, and though indulged with greater liberty, are far less dangerous. I do not remember that any insurrection has been ever attempted by them, and the Indians are reduced to more of a civilized life, than they are in the colonies of any other European nation.
This race of people are now, whatever they were formerly, humble, dejected, timorous, and docile; they are generally treated with great indignity, as the state of all people subjected to another people, is infinitely worse than what they suffer from the pressure of the worst form, or the worst administration of any government of their own.
The blacks here, as they are imported from Africa, have the same character as the blacks of our colonies; stubborn, hardy, of an ordinary understanding, and fitted for the gross slavery they endure.
Such are the characters of the people, not only of New Spain, but of all Spanish America. When any thing materially different occurs, I shall not fail to mention it.
The civil government is administered by tribunals, which here are called audiences, consisting of a certain number of judges, divided into different chambers, more resembling the parliaments in France than our courts. At the head of the chief of these chambers the viceroy himself presides when he sees fit. His employment is one of the greatest trust and power the king of Spain has in his gift; and is perhaps the richest government entrusted to any subject in the world. All employments here are held only by native Spaniards, and by them but for a certain limited time; most not above three years. Jealousy, in this respect, as in all others relative to the Indies, is the spirit that influences all their regulations; and it has this very bad effect; that every officer, from the highest to the lowest, has the avidity which a new and lucrative post inspires; ravenous because his time is short, he oppresses the people, and defrauds the crown; another succeeds him with the same dispositions; and no man is careful to establish any thing useful in his office, knowing that his successor will be sure to trample upon every regulation which is not subservient to his own interests; so that this enslaved people has not the power of putting in use the fox’s policy, of letting the first swarm of bloodsuckers stay on, but is obliged to submit to be drained by a constant succession of hungry and impatient harpies.
There are some troops kept in New Spain, and a good revenue appropriated for their maintenance, and for the support of the fortifications there; but the soldiers are few; ill cloathed, ill paid, and worse disciplined; the military here keep pace with the civil and ecclesiastical administration, and every thing is a jobb.
CHAP. VII. NEW MEXICO.
NEW Mexico lies to the North and North-East of New Spain. It’s bounds to the North are not ascertained. Taking in California, it has the great South-Sea to the West, and to the East it is bounded by the French pretensions on the Missisippi. This country lies, for the most part, within the temperate zone, and has a most agreeable climate, and a soil in many places productive of every thing for profit or delight. It has rich mines of silver, and some of gold, which are worked more and more every day; and it produces precious stones of several kinds; but it has no direct intercourse with any part of Europe. The country is but little known at all to Europeans; and the Spanish settlements there are comparatively weak; however, they are every day increasing, in proportion as they discover mines; which are here not inferior to any that have been discovered in the other parts of America. The inhabitants are mostly Indians, but in many places lately reduced by the Spanish missionaries, to christianity, to a civilized life, to follow trades, and to raise corn and wine, which they now export pretty largely to Old Mexico. This useful change was principally effected at the expence of a Spanish nobleman, the marquis Velasco, whom the reverend author of lord Anson’s voyage calls, for that reason, a munificent bigot.
The famous peninsula of California is a part, and far from an inconsiderable part of this country. It is a place finely situated for trade, and has a pearl fishery of great value. It was first discovered by the great conqeror of Mexico Hernando Cortes. Our famous admiral and navigator Sir Francis Drake landed there, and took possession of it in 1578; and he not only took possession, but obtained the best right in the world to the possession; the principal king having formally invested him with his principality. However, I do not find that we have thought of asserting that right since his time; but it may probably employ, in some future time, the pens of those lawyers who dispute with words, what can only be decided by the sword, and will afford large matter upon the right of discovery, occupancy and settlement.
CHAP. VIII. PERU.
THE conquest of Peru, atchieved in so extraordinary a manner, brought into the power of Spain a country not less wealthy, and nearly as extensive as Mexico; but far beyond it for the conveniency of habitation and the agreableness of the climate. Like Mexico it is within the torrid zone; yet having on one side the South-Sea, and on the other the great ridge of the Andes through it’s whole length, the joint effects of the ocean and the mountains temper the equinoctial heat in a manner equally agreeable and surprising. With a sky for the most part cloudy, which shields them from the rays of the vertical sun, it never rains in this country. But every night a soft benign dew broods upon the earth, and refreshes the grass and plants so as to produce in some parts the greatest fertility; what the dew wants in perfecting this, is wrought by the vast number of streams, to which the frequent rains and the daily melting of the snow on those astonishing mountains give rise; for those mountains, tho’ within the tropics, have their tops continually covered with snow, which is an appearance unparallelled in the same climate. Along the sea coast Peru is generally a dry barren sand, except by the banks of the rivers and streams we have mentioned, where it is extremly fertile, as are all the valleys in the hilly country.
The cause of the want of rain in all the flat country of Peru, is difficult to be assigned; though the agents in it are not improbably the constant South-West wind, that prevails there for the greatest part of the year; and the immense height of the mountains, cold with a constant snow. The plain country between, refreshed as it is on the one hand by the cool winds that blow from the frigid regions of the South
, and heated as uniformly by the direct rays of the equinoctial sun, preserves such an equal temper, that the vapour once elevated can hardly ever descend in rain: But in the mountainous part of the country, by the alternate contraction and dilatation of the air from the daily heats, and the succeeding colds, which the snows communicate in the absence of the sun, as well as from the unequal temper of the air which prevails in all hilly places, the rain falls very plentifully; the climate in the mountainous countries is extremely changeable, and the changes sudden.
All along the coast of Peru, a current sets strongly to the North; further out to sea it passes with equal rapidity to the South. This current probably moves eddywise; for having run as far as it’s moving cause impels it, it naturally passes back again where it has least resistance. The ignorance of this double current made the navigation in the South seas originally very uncertain and fatiguing; but now the course is, for those who pass from Chili to Peru, to keep in to the shore in their passage to Callao, and on their return to stand out a great many leagues to sea and take the Southern current homewards. The same method, but reversed, is observed in the voyages between Panama, and all the other Northern countries, and the ports of Peru.