The third level, the Martaba al-Waḥdāniyya—Comprehensiveness perhaps gives the flavour of its meaning—is the second determination or self-disclosure of the Divine Absolute. It is represented by the segment of the circle between the lines 450–90 and 405–135. On this plane, Divine Unity is manifested in the eternal Names, the a‘yān al-ābita, the fixed entities which are the prototypes for the multiple forms of creatures in existence. This is the plane where the forms are determined and distinguished one from another, although they never come into concrete existence except through their shadows on the more material planes of the divine descent. It is also the plane on which Love (‘ishq) comes into being. This plane is therefore one of plurality, identities, and interrelatedness. Manjhan reflects this in his narration by having the greater part of the discourse on the right hand of the circle devoted to the conversation between Manohar and Madhumālatī in which they tell one another their names and identify themselves fully. The left hand side contains most of the main characters of the story who converse and exchange letters, the final outcome of which is the arrangement and performance of the marriage ceremony, although Union itself occurs in the world above. The marriage is also the culmination of the oath of eternal fidelity which the couple swore to one another at their first meeting, which in turn is suggestive of, and symbolizes, the covenant made between God and humanity and the arising of Love between them. Although the greater part of Madhumālatī’s bārahmāsā appears in this segment of the narration, in fact, it strictly belongs in the worlds below given it is a description of her suffering throughout the year spent there searching for Manohar.
The fourth level, the Martaba al-Arwāḥ, is the Level of Souls, which is the third level of determination. It is the plane of souls or spirits who can recognize one another and who acknowledge the ‘ayān al-ābita, the prototypes, as their masters. It is represented by the segment of the circle which is contained within the lines 405–135 and 360–180. This is the world in which the human soul and God are aware of their separation and suffer the pain of Love in consequence. In fact, it is the primary characteristic of this world that the human soul, becoming aware of its separation, should suffer viraha, the pain of Love, which Manjhan describes as the sole hope for mankind since it is the only way that the soul can become conscious of itself. Manjhan begins to experience this grief from the very beginning of this section of narration when he wakes up to find he has, as it were, fallen out of paradise. Reason and human intelligence in the form of doctors cannot cure him because they do not know Love. He ends the section totally alone, cast up on an unknown shore, with only the name of Madhumālatī and the Mercy of God. On the left-hand side of the circle, the narrative of this section begins with Madhumālatī allowing herself to be caught and to be put in a cage. The bird in the cage is one of the Sufis’ most persistent symbols for the soul imprisoned in the body; Rumi uses it at one point to refer to the soul in the body and at the same time to refer to people locked in the iron cage of ‘reputation’.2 Madhumālatī’s mother turned her into a bird in the first place to protect her family’s reputation, so there are echoes here of Rumi’s double usage. When her mother sees Madhumālatī in the cage she is overcome with remorse and weeps, immediately restoring her to her proper form. Tears of remorse, as Rumi constantly insists, are the soul’s certain way of attracting the Mercy of God. But in this section it is Tārācand whose selflessness and selfless love is perhaps indicative of ‘ubūdiyya, servanthood, who shows the way for the soul to ascend to higher worlds. Finally, it is here, on this plane of souls, that Madhumālatī begins her bārahmāsā expressing poignantly the Love and yearning that God has for the human soul.
The fifth level, Martaba al-Imāl, the Level of Imaginal Forms, is the level of determination of the subtle and imaginal forms which are the shadows of the prototypes and have a type of subtle materiality. This plane of almost astral forms is represented by the segment of the narration between the lines 360–180 and 315–225. This is a world symbolized by picture-galleries, gardens reminiscent of Paradise, and young and beautiful unawakened maidens. It is in the picture-gallery that Manohar and Madhumālatī meet for the second time and where she tells him her beauty cannot be seen with ordinary eyes. It was when coming out of the picture-gallery that Pemā was captured by the demon. Pemā means Love, but here is the shadowy love called ‘ishq-i majāzī, metaphorical love, in contrast to ‘ishq-i ḥaqīqī, real love, which belongs to a higher world. Madhumālatī is transformed into a bird in this world, flying everywhere in search of Manohar, beautifully expressive of the insubstantiality of this imaginal plane.
Finally, there is the sixth level, Martaba al-Ḥiss, the Level of Sense Experience, also known as ‘ālam-i ajsām, the world of bodies. This is the world in which Pemā, Love, is detained and incarnate. This is the world in which Manohar has to fight his demon and to which the Shaārī Sufi has to descend before beginning his ascent. In conclusion, this is significantly the world in which Manohar and Madhumālatī never meet.
Manjhan has clearly made his cosmology foundational to the symmetry of his narrative and his symbolism. There are other possible interpretations that could be mentioned with regard to the six levels just discussed, such as the six days of creation, but sufficient has been shown to demonstrate conclusively that for Manjhan the symmetry of his narration was as important to him as the symbolism it reinforces and deepens. It is hoped that this Appendix has added further to the understanding and appreciation of the poem. Mad-humālatī was well known and highly regarded in Indian Sufi and literary circles and was translated into Persian several times as well as producing a particularly renowned version in Dakkhani Urdu, the Gulshan-i‘ishq, by the Sufi poet Nuṣratī. But in these later renderings it was the beauty of the story that was captured not the symmetry. In so doing a considerable portion of Manjhan’s genius and achievement was lost. It is that which this Appendix has sought to restore.
SIMON WEIGHTMAN
EXPLANATORY NOTES
two worlds in the one sound O: the two worlds are this world and the next, and could refer here either to the Muslim ‘ālamain or the Hindu ihaloka (lit.‘this world’, Skt.) and paraloka (lit. ‘other world’, Skt.). The term ekokāra, the one sound, is a reference to the Qur-’ānic account of creation, in which God said ‘Be’ and ‘It was.’ Here the poet translates God’s word (kun fayakun) into the Hindavī word for the nāda or sound which sets the universe in motion.
three worlds: this is the Hindu tribhuvana, the three worlds of heaven (svarga), earth (manuya-loka), and hell (naraka).
four ages: the four ages (yuga, Skt.) are the four Hindu periods of time into which the aeon is divided, namely, the Kta, Dvāpara, Tretā, and Kali yugas (these Sanskrit terms refer to four throws of the die in gaming, with Kta considered the lucky or winning throw and Kali the losing). The first three have already passed and we are now in the Kali yuga, marked by particular degeneracy.
Absolute: the word used to denote the Absolute Reality (al-aqq) is the Hindavī Brahma.
He came as Death … come: this half-line is somewhat puzzling. It is possible that Death (Yama) translates the Arabic qaā, or fate, which is one of the attributes of Allah in His capacity as the apportioner of fates according to His divine will. For Yama, see note to p. 59 below.
One Light … worlds: this line refers to the famous Light verse of the Qur’ān, in the Sūrat al-Nūar, 24: 35: ‘Allah is the Light of the heavens and the earth. The parable of His Light is as if there were a Niche and within it a Lamp: the Lamp enclosed in Glass; the glass as it were a brilliant star: lit from a blessed Tree, an Olive, neither of the East nor of the West, whose Oil is well-nigh luminous, though fire scarce touched it: Light upon Light! Allah doth guide whom He will to His light: Allah doth set forth Parables for men: and Allah doth know all things.’ (A. Yusuf Ali, The Holy Qur’ān: Text, Translation and Commentary, Beirut: Dar al-Qur’ān al Karīm, 1934, 1993).
Countless are the forms … names: this refers to the
yān al-ābita, the eternal hexeities or patterns, and the divine Names, which are so important in the account of creation given by Ibn ‘Arabī (AD 11651240), which had itself become more or less the accepted version of creation for Indian Sufis after the fourteenth century. The divine Names were the basis of letter mysticism and cosmology, and were used extensively by the Shaārīs to inculcate God’s qualities or attributes in the being of the practitioner.
Invisible: Alakh, an epithet frequently by Sufi poets to describe Allah.
whatever exists, exists in Him: this refers to the doctrine of waḥdat alwujūd, the unity of existence, which is the key term in the highly influential ontological monism of Ibn ‘Arabī. Within Ibn ‘Arabī’s paradoxical formulation, the world is an unfolding of God’s essence and therefore shares in that essence, yet is not identical with God’s being, which is beyond human comprehension.
ten directions: the ten directions are the four cardinal points, halfway between each cardinal point, and above and below.
the Creator shows His hidden nature: in a variant reading, the Rampur MS of the Madhumālatī reads āpa dikhāvā (‘discloses himself’), not guput dikhaāvaā (‘discloses the secret’).
He has neither beginning nor end: we have followed the Ekadala manuscript in reading the second half-line as ādi na bhau anta na āhi.
Creation itself is the mirror of Your face: the ḥadī qudsī to which this refers is the famous, ‘I was a hidden treasure, and longed to be known. So I created the world in order that I may be known’ (‘kuntu kanzan makhfīyan fa aḥababtu an urafu fakhalaqtu al-khalqa lika yrafu’). A ḥadī qudsī (‘divine saying’, Ar.) is a traditional saying or story which relates a revelation from God in the words of Muhammad and is not found in the Qur’ān.
This lamp of creation: this refers to the nūr-e muḥammadī, the light of Muhammad, an association of the Prophet with the light of the first manifestation of the divine essence which developed early and was much used by the Sufis.
For him, the Deity fashioned the universe: the ḥadī qudsī to which this alludes is laulāka mā khalaqtl-afāka, ‘If you had not been, I would not have created the heavens.’
The moon split in two at the pointing of his finger: Sūra 54: 1 reads, ‘The Hour of Judgement is nigh, and the moon is cleft asunder.’ It was a much later tradition that developed attributing this as a miracle performed by Muḥammad to convert unbelievers, but it was one lacking authority either in scripture or ḥadī. None the less, this ‘miracle’ became established as part of Sufi lore and is often alluded to in Sufi poetry.
Manifest, the name is Muḥammad … He: this concept of the ḥaqīqat muḥammadiyya, the reality of Muḥammad or the archetypal Muḥammad, was developed by Ibn ‘Arabī as homologous with the manifestation of the divine essence in the form of light, and was much used by the Shaārīs and other Indian Sufis.
of his four companions: these were not, of course, companions of the Prophet, but were in fact the four righteous Caliphs. See notes below.
Abū Bakr: Abū Bakr ibn Abī Quhāfa, father of ‘Ā’isha, youngest wife of Muḥammad; Abū Bakr reigned as Caliph for two years (AD 632–4) before dying.
‘Umar: ‘Umar ibn Al-Khaab was pre-eminent among the early Caliphs for contributing to the spread of Islam. He reigned for ten years (AD 634–44) before his assassination by Fīrūz, a Persian slave.
‘Umār: ‘Umān Ibn ‘Affān commissioned the second and final version of the Qur’ān. He ruled for thirteen years (AD 643–56) before being slain by the son of Abū Bakr.
‘Alī: ‘Alī ibn Abū ālib was Muḥammad’s cousin and married Fāimah, the Prophet’s daughter. He was the father of Ḥasan, who was poisoned, and Ḥusain, who was martyred in the battle that decisively split Islam into the sects of Sunnī and Shi‘āh. ‘Alī followed ‘Umān as Caliph from AD 656 to 661.
Salīm Shāh: Salīm or Islām Shāh Sūrī, the son of Sher Shāh Sūrī, ruled from Agra after his father’s death from an exploding cannon at the siege of Kalinjar in 1545. He was the patron of Shaikh Manjhan, who formed part of the coterie of poets and learned men at his court. Manjhan, a disciple of the great Shaarī Shaikh Muḥammad Ġhau Gvāliyārī, has often been confused with another Manjhan, also a disciple of Shaikh Muḥammad hau. This second Manjhan was the qāi of the town of Chunar and is mentioned in Ġhauī Shaārī’s Gulzār-i Abrār. That the two are different personages is clear from the account of Muḥammad Kabīr in the Afsānah-i Shāhān, British Library MS Add. 24409, fo. 105b.
Indra’s throne: god of rain and thunder, Indra was considered the king of the gods in the Vedic period, but later became secondary in importance to Śiva and Viu. His weapon is the thunderbolt (vajra) and he is famous for his excesses in drinking and womanizing. His court is supposed to be populated by celestial musicians (gandharva) and heavenly nymphs (apsaras), who are exquisitely beautiful and excel in music and dance.
Through the nine regions and the seven continents: the nine regions refer to the Indian cosmology of the nine divisions of the earth, i.e. Bhārata, Ilāvarta, Kipurua, Bhadra, Ketumāl, Hari, Hiranya, Ramya, and Kuśa. The seven continents are traditionally depicted as islands each surrounded by a sea of a particular fluid. Thus, Jambūldvīpa has the sea of Lavana (salt), Plakadvīpa, the sea of Iku (sugarcane juice), Śālmalīdvīpa, the sea of Surī or Madya (liquor), Kuśadvīpa, the sea of Ghta (clarified butter), Krauñcadvīpa, the sea of Dadhi (curds), Śakadvīpa, the sea of Dugdha (milk), and Pukaradvīpa, the sea of Jala (fresh water). Jambūdvīpa lies in the centre of all the continents and the golden mountain Meru stands in the middle of it. For a more extensive treatment of this cosmological scheme in Hindavī Sufi poetry, see Malik Muḥammad Jāyasī, Padmāvat, ed. M. P. Gupta, verses 150–8. Jāyasī uses the convention to suggest seven stages through which the seeker must pass in order to reach the Mānasa lake, the true home of the soul.
Lakā: the island ruled by Rāvaa and where he imprisons Sītā, the wife of Rāma, in the epic, Rāmāyaa. The mythic Lakā is believed to be a reference to the island now known as Sri Lanka, located off the southern tip of India.
the fourteen sciences: the fourteen vidyā s or sciences are usually listed as the four Vedas, the six Agas, Dharma, Mīmāsa, Tarka or Nyaya, and the Purāas.
Hanumān’s bridge: son of Vāyu the Wind-God, and general of the monkey army, Hanumān is a central character in the Rāmāya and is noted for his enormous strength and absolute devotion to Rāma. During Rāma’s rescue of Sītā, from the prison of Rāvaa, Hanumān, along with an army of monkeys, built a bridge of stone between India and Lanikā.
Yudhihira: eldest of the five Pāava brothers of the epic Mahābhairāta, and king of Indraprastha, Yudhihira is famed for his virtuous and righteous behaviour and his skil l at kingship.
Hurīścundru: a king famous for his liberality, honesty, and unflinching adherence to the truth. In a trial devised by two sages, Harīścandra stood by his word even though he had to lose his kingdom, to sell his wife and son, to become a slave of a low-caste man and to agree to put his own wife to death under the charge of being a witch.
Kara: the half-brother and enemy of the Pāava brothers in the Mahābhāirata. Kara was the son of Sūarya, the sun-god, and received divine arm our and earrings from his father at birth. In an act of legendary generosity he gave these away to the wily Indra who, disguised as a brahmin, asked him for a boon.
āitim: a Christian Arab nomad who lived before Muḥammad, ātim al-aiy is remembered chiefly for his hospitality, often slaughterin g as many as forty camels at one time for his guests and for the poor.
Bhoja: the eleventh-century king of Ujjain and Dhar. Bhoja was a legendary patron of the arts and reputed to be the author of numerous works including the famous Śngāra Prakāśa, a Sanskrit work on aesthetics.
Bali: the emperor of the asuras (demons). Bali granted a boon to Viu in his incarnation as a dwarf. Viṡṇu asked to be given all the ground he could cover in three steps, an d when Bali agreed, he grew to cosmic
size, then stepped over heaven and earth. Out of respect for Bali’s kindness, Viu stopped short of stepping over Pātāla, the underworld, and gave it to Bali to rule.
Vikrama: also known as Vikrāmaditya, this emperor of ancient India (generally believed to have ruled in the first century BC, although his existence in not an established fact) is famed for being an extraordinarily just and righteous ruler, and for subduing the ‘barbarians’ who had invaded the kingdom.
Shaikh Muḥammad Ġhau: Shaikh Muḥammad Ġhau Gvaāliyārī (d. 1563) was the spiritual guide of Shaikh Manjhan, the poet, and famous for devising the method of dvat ul-asmā’ or the invocation of the Names of Allah. He and his brother Shaikh Phūl were especially close to the Mughal emperors Bābur and Humāyūn, and after the Sūrī victory over the Mughals in 1540 the Shaikh escaped the armies of Sher Shāh Sūrī and fled to Gujarat. After Sher Shāh’s death in 1545, his son Islām Shāh made amends with the Shaikh and accepted Manjhan as one of the group of poets he patronized at his court.
The one whom his gaze touches is protected: here the poet uses the Hindavī disi to suggest the Persian tavajjuh, the absorbed attention of the Shaik h which transforms the consciousness of the disciple.
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