Empress Dowager Cixi: The Concubine Who Launched Modern China

by Chang, Jung

  Chapter 2 From the Opium War to the Burning of the Old Summer Palace (1839–60)

  17 palace file: Yu Bingkun et al., pp. 63–70

  18 second son: First Historical Archives of China (ed.) 1998, vol. 11, no. 1856; sister marries Prince Chun: Pujia, Pujie et al., p. 209; Headland . . . noted: Headland, p. 264; cf. Carl, p. 82

  19 wet nurse: Yu Bingkun et al., pp. 67–8; Tong Yue and Lü Jihong, pp. 15–16

  20 Macartney visit: Macartney’s diaries in Helen H. Robbins; First Historical Archives of China (ed.) 2001, pp. 130–6; Rockhill, p. 31; 1.1 million taels: Li Guorong, p. 338

  21 fifty years of good weather: Kangxi to his sons and officials, in Forbidden City Publishing (ed.), p. 239; population explosion: Jiang Tao 1993, pp. 30–4; Li Zhiting, pp. 475–7

  22 ‘tell the fishes’: Association of Chinese Historians (ed.), The Opium War, vol. 2, pp. 107–8; Daoguang approved Lin’s letter: Qing Government (ed.), Daoguang, pp. 492–504

  23 Gladstone speech: Hansard, 8 April 1840; footnote 2: Ridley, p. 259; Hansard, 4 August 1843

  24 Wu Tingfang wrote: Wu Tingfang, pp. 246–7

  25 Daoguang agony: Qing Government (ed.), Daoguang, pp. 4746, 4807; Palace Museum (ed.) 2002, vol. 9, p. 8; Daoguang writing will: Archives of Ming and Qing Dynasties (ed.) 1979, vol. 4, pp. 273–8; First Historical Archives of China (ed.) 2001, p. 150

  26 Qiying denounced, ordered to commit suicide: Mao Haijian 2006, pp. 44–6; Association of Chinese Historians (ed.), The Second Opium War, vol. 3, pp. 449–50

  27 ‘I am so awed’: First Historical Archives of China & History Department of Fujian Normal University (eds), vol. 1, p. 44; ‘ships of war’: Morse, vol. 1, p. 417; ‘pistol at the throat’: Morse, vol. 1, p. 573

  28 Xianfeng exchanges with officials: Association of Chinese Historians (ed.), The Second Opium War, vols 3 & 4, passim. The English translation of the emperor’s endorsement in Parkes Papers 28/10, Department of Manuscripts and University Archives, Cambridge University Library, Cambridge.; Wolseley commented: Wolseley, pp. 16, 57, 92–3, 113,

  29 a bounty: Association of Chinese Historians (ed.), The Second Opium War, vol. 5, p. 92; kao-niu: Lin Keguang et al., p. 150; court exchanges over Parkes: Association of Chinese Historians (ed.), The Second Opium War, vol. 5, pp. 64, 67–8, 80, 94–5, 101–3, 111

  30 ‘tied their feet’: Grant, pp. 133–4; ‘My dearest’: Hurd, p. 234; Grant wrote: Grant, p. 203

  31 Montauban, wrote: Morse, vol. 1, p. 606; ‘Indiscriminate plunder’: Wolseley, pp. 224–7; ‘What a terrible scene’: Swinhoe, p. 305

  32 ‘One room only’: Grant, p. 129; ‘Lootie’: Royal Archives, Windsor, PPTO/PP/QV/MAIN/1861/7469; Millar, pp. 130–1; French refused: Morse, vol. 1, p. 611; ‘On 18th October’: Grant, pp. 204–5

  33 ‘ruined nothings’: Wolseley, p. 280; Gordon wrote home: Boulger, p. 31; Victor Hugo wrote: UNESCO Courier, November 1985

  34 Backhouse forgery: Bland & Backhouse, pp. 14–29; Trevor-Roper; Association of Chinese Historians (ed.), The Second Opium War, vol. 2, pp. 66–9

  Chapter 3 Emperor Xianfeng Dies (1860–61)

  36 ‘what phrenologists would describe’: Thomson, p. 252

  37 ‘returned him a proud’: Grant, p. 209; ‘Both of the national’: Wolseley, p. 295; Elgin friendly letter: Association of Chinese Historians (ed.), The Second Opium War, vol. 5, p. 264; Xianfeng to Prince Gong: Association of Chinese Historians (ed.), The Second Opium War, vol. 5, pp. 225–6, 264; One diarist: Association of Chinese Historians (ed.), The Second Opium War, vol. 2, p. 42; Ignatieff to Gong, Gong to Xianfeng: Association of Chinese Historians (ed.), The Second Opium War, vol. 5, pp. 235, 246, 261; vol. 4, p. 463

  38 ‘With this treaty’: Ignatieff, pp. 44–5; Xianfeng refused to receive credentials: Association of Chinese Historians (ed.), The Second Opium War, vol. 5, pp. 239, 260–1, 269–70

  39 operas in last days: Ding Ruqin, pp. 221–7; Li Guoliang, p. 95; Xianfeng death: Archives of Ming and Qing Dynasties (ed.) 1979, vol. 1, pp. 82–3; Anon., p. 13; Wu Xiangxiang, pp. 49–55; First Historical Archives of China (ed.) 1998, vol. 11, nos 877, 881

  Chapter 4 The Coup that Changed China (1861)

  41 unnamed ‘others’: Wu Xiangxiang, p. 56; emotional row: Anon., p. 13

  42 two women plotted: Xue Fucheng 1983, p. 25

  43 seals established: First Historical Archives of China (ed.) 1998, vol. 11, nos 886–91; Archives of Ming and Qing Dynasties (ed.) 1979, vol. 1, p. 85; ‘all is in harmony’: Anon., pp. 13–14; ‘If we saw’: First Historical Archives of China (ed.) 1998, vol. 11, nos 338, 882

  44 Allowing Gong to visit: Weng Tonghe 2006, vol. 1, p. 131; ‘no one had shown’: Anon., p. 8; Gong first meeting with Cixi: Xue Fucheng 1983, p. 19; Anon., pp. 8–9

  45 ‘one or two’: Archives of Ming and Qing Dynasties (ed.) 1979, vol. 1, pp. 91–2; Cradling the child emperor: Wu Xiangxiang, p. 62

  46 ‘Please could the 7th brother’: First Historical Archives of China (ed.) 2001, p. 176; Prince Chun as pupil: Lin Keguang et al., p. 441; Pan Xiangmin 2006, no. 2; Chun pleaded with the emperor: Qing Government (ed.),Tongzhi, pp. 5940, 7286; Chun’s reply: First Historical Archives of China (ed.) 2001, p. 176; Li Ciming, p. 539

  47 the coup: Archives of Ming and Qing Dynasties (ed.) 1979, vol. 1, pp. 96–118; Weng Tonghe 2006, vol. 1, pp. 143–7; Xue Fucheng 1983, p. 21; Sato, p. 177

  49 Sushun hated: Xue Fucheng 1983, pp. 17, 23; Weng Tonghe 2006, vol. 1, p. 54; vol. 5, p. 2889; Chen Kuilong, p. 96; Aisin-Gioro Puyi, p. 11; no one else incriminated: First Historical Archives of China (ed.) 1998, vol. 11, no. 1533; Archives of Ming and Qing Dynasties (ed.) 1979, vol. 1, pp. 120, 139; Bruce wrote: Bruce to Earl Russell, 12 November 1861, F.O. 17/356, National Archives, London

  50 ‘the Empress Mother’: Robertson to the British Foreign Office, 30 November 1861, F.O. 17/360, National Archives, London; ‘I am bowled over’: Zeng Guofan, vol. 1, p. 690; had considered making Gong Regent: original letter to Prince Chun, First Historical Archives of China (ed.), 2001, p. 176; Gong title and reaction: Archives of Ming and Qing Dynasties (ed.) 1979, vol. 1, pp. 106, 119–21; ‘from now on’: Archives of Ming and Qing Dynasties (ed.) 1979, vol. 1, p. 123; obliged to declare: Archives of Ming and Qing Dynasties (ed.) 1979, vol. 1, p. 137

  51 footnote 2: Lin Keguang et al., p. 16

  52 close the curtain: Shan Shiyuan 1997, pp. 452–3

  Chapter 5 First Step on the Long Road to Modernity (1861–9)

  55 ‘statesmen who’: Bruce to Earl Russell, 12 November 1861, F.O. 17/356, National Archives, London

  56 as many observed: Carl, p. 51; Rongling 1994, pp. 13, 20; Der Ling 2004 pp. 69, 78, passim. (For an assessment of the writings of Rongling and Der Ling, who were both important eye-witnesses, see Zhu Jiajin 1982, no. 4.); ‘to read our thoughts’: Headland, p. 71; Zhen in audience: Guo Songtao, p. 16; Xue Fucheng 1983, pp. 25–6; Zhen seal only: Yu Bingkun et al., p. 116; ‘almost if not entirely’: Headland, p. 28

  57 Cixi’s lessons: Xin Xiuming, pp. 35–6; ‘China is now’: Palmerston, in Hake, pp. 86–7; Morse, vol. 2, p. 119

  58 ‘full of jokes’: Freeman-Mitford, p. 72; crude ‘poems’: Yang Tianshi, pp. 6–7; ‘whole history’: Morse, vol. 2, p. 63

  59 ‘Since the treaties’: Qing Government (ed.), Tongzhi, pp. 293–306; She was cautious: Qing Government (ed.), Tongzhi, pp. 298, 352–8, 403–4, 417–18, 485–7. For more information about Wade, see Cooley, Jr.; imperial decrees ‘frankly’: Morse, vol. 2, p. 76; ‘Words cannot express’: Gordon, pp. 49–50

  60 ‘You may say’: Qing Government (ed.), Tongzhi, p. 353

  61 ‘Asiatic barbarity’: Morse, vol. 2, pp. 102–4; ‘can defeat’: Li Hongzhang, vol. 29, p. 157; Cixi re Gordon: Qing Government (ed.), Tongzhi, pp. 2461–2, 2526–9; Morse, vol. 2, p. 105

  62 Wade to Gong: Qing Government (ed.), Tongzhi, pp. 3894–3900; Hart, Journals, 1863–1866, p. 167; Qianlong on Wang Lun: Zuo Buqing

  63 ‘Shanghai is’: Qing Government (ed.), Tongzhi, p. 301;
6,800 cargo ships: Li Yunjun (ed.), p. 243; footnote: Freeman-Mitford, p. 29

  64 ‘He rather surprised’: Hart, Journals, 1854–1863, p. 15; ‘I ate’: Hart, Journals, 1854–1863, pp. 317–18; well over 32 million: Hart, Journals, 1863–1866, p. 343; indemnities paid out: Morse, vol. 1, p. 570; vol. 2, p. 33; Qing Government (ed.), Tongzhi, p. 3615; import of rice: Li Wenzhi (ed.), pp. 770, 773; Qing Government (ed.), Tongzhi, pp. 6032–4

  65 Hart writings: Hart, Journals, 1863–1866, pp. 282–8, 326–46; Qing Government (ed.), Tongzhi, pp. 3764–87; ‘like a hare’: Freeman-Mitford, pp. 240–1

  66 ‘makes some good points’: Qing Government (ed.), Tongzhi, pp. 3767–70; watch their language: Mi Rucheng (ed.), pp. 29–31; ‘I am British’: Guo Songtao, p. 15

  67 ‘incalculable damages’: Qing Government (ed.), Tongzhi, p. 5157; ‘not said anything’: Qing Government (ed.), Tongzhi, p. 3765; Shore noted: Shore, p. 394; ‘in this place’: Freeman-Mitford, p. 158

  68 Gong told the foreign envoys: Mi Rucheng (ed.), p. 30; severely worded edict: Qing Government (ed.), Tongzhi, pp. 3817–18; ‘I do not know’: Hart, Journals, 1863–1866, p. 298

  69 Cixi on ship-building: Qing Government (ed.), Tongzhi, pp. 4469–72

  Chapter 6 Virgin Journeys to the West (1861–71)

  70 granted no kneeling: First Historical Archives of China (ed.) 1998, vol. 11, no. 1349; ‘having too high’: Wu Xiangxiang, p. 10

  71 Grand Adviser title taken away: First Historical Archives of China (ed.) 1998, vol. 15, nos. 293, 378; ‘to borrow Western methods’: Association of Chinese Historians (ed.), The Movement to Learn from the West, vol. 2, p. 30; ‘stooges of’: Weng Tonghe 2006, vol. 1, pp. 519, 521

  72 Cixi-Woren: Qing Government (ed.), Tongzhi, pp. 4557–616; Weng Tonghe 2006, vol. 1, pp. 527–44; Weng against the West: Weng Tonghe 2006, vol. 1, pp. 78, 93, 429; Kong Xiangji 2008, pp. 29–32; Cixi on Hsü: Qing Government (ed.), Tongzhi, pp. 4523–5; Weng Tonghe 2006, vol. 1, p. 515

  73 ‘just like the one’: Zhang Deyi, p. 520; Hsü Chi-she, on America; ‘inflating the status’: Gu Hongming, p. 54; Cixi appoints Hsü: Qing Government (ed.), Tongzhi, p. 3503; Shan Shiyuan 1990, pp. 68–9; Association of Chinese Historians (ed.), The Movement to Learn from the West, vol. 2, p. 28; Freeman-Mitford, pp. 181–2; appoints Martin: Qing Government (ed.), Tongzhi, pp. 2701–4

  74 Binchun’s travels: All quotes in Binchun; Queen Victoria noted: Royal Archives, Windsor, VIC/MAIN/QVJ/1866

  75 Binchun diaries to Cixi: Qing Government (ed.), Tongzhi, pp. 4443–5

  76 Binchun promotion: Hart, Journals, 1863–1866, p. 360; Weng Tonghe 2006, vol. 2, p. 684; Weng mentioned him: Kong Xiangji 2008, p. 31; Weng Tonghe 2006, vol. 2, p. 684; Gong to Cixi on Burlingame: Qing Government (ed.), Tongzhi, pp. 4899–917

  77 The conservatives: Weng Tonghe 2006, vol. 1, p. 568; ‘Mr Hart’s brain’: Morse: vol. 2, pp. 188–9; In fact, Hart: Morse: vol. 2, pp. 190, 194, 203; Queen Victoria diary: Royal Archives, Windsor, VIC/MAIN/QVJ/1868

  78 ‘the citizens of New York’: Burlingame speech in Schrecker; in Shore, p. 408–9

  79 ‘It affords me’: Schrecker

  80 ‘it is of utmost importance’: Qing Government (ed.), Tongzhi, p. 6640; Zhigang, p. 361; Zhigang quotes and audience: Zhigang, pp. 244–380

  81 Madame Tussaud’s commission: 1845 edition of Madame Tussaud’s catalogue, in Arthur, p. 11; diaries presented to Cixi: Li Hongzhang, vol. 4, pp. 363–5

  82 Cixi told Li not to come: Li Hongzhang, vol. 5, p. 183; ‘Unexpectedly’: Association of Chinese Historians (ed.), The Movement to Learn from the West, vol. 8, p. 270

  Chapter 7 Love Doomed (1869)

  83 Emperors against eunuchs: Li Guorong, p. 184

  84 ‘indulgence in seeking pleasures’: Weng Tonghe 2005, vol. 1, p. 1; Weng Tonghe 2006, vol. 2, p. 703; ‘depressing’ place: Carl, p. 203; Weng comments: Weng Tonghe 2006, vol. 2, pp. 705, 711

  85 Prince Chun insistent on execution: Xue Fucheng 2004, vol. 1, p. 42; Xue Fucheng 1983, p. 83; ‘Can he be spared’: Xue Fucheng 2004, vol. 1, p. 42; ‘must not be allowed’: First Historical Archives of China (ed.) 1998, vol. 19, no. 526; corpse exposed for days: Woqiu Zhongzi, p. 52; Xue Fucheng 1897; An’s belongings: First Historical Archives of China (ed.) 1998, vol. 19, no. 548; Tang Yinian, p. 153

  86 friend of An strangulated: First Historical Archives of China (ed.) 1998, vol. 19, no. 632; Woqiu Zhongzi, p. 52; Yuan Xieming; ‘taking out her anger’: Xue Fucheng 2004, vol. 1, p. 43; women allowed to be seen: Ding Baozhen, vol. 2, pp. 801–2; First Historical Archives of China (ed.) 1998, vol. 19, no. 631; ‘a boom’: Xue Fucheng 1897; Cixi collapsed: Weng Tonghe 2006, vol. 2, pp. 721–30

  87 operas put on daily: Ding Ruqin, pp. 231–2

  Chapter 8 A Vendetta against the West (1869–71)

  88 Chun memorandum: Qing Government (ed.), Tongzhi, pp. 5927–41; Weng Tonghe 2006, vol. 2, p. 671

  89 ‘Even if we do not’: Zeng Jize, p. 334; grandees’ reaction: Qing Government (ed.),Tongzhi, pp. 5941–50; ‘If it were otherwise’: Freeman-Mitford, pp. xii–xiii

  90 Isabella Bird observed: Bird, p. 257; ‘swearing that the charge’: Freeman-Mitford, pp. xlii–xliii

  91 ‘Stories of child eating’: Bird, p. 346; 1870 Tianjin riot: Daily communications, including Cixi’s detailed instructions, in First Historical Archives of China & History Department of Fujian Normal University (eds), vol. 1, pp. 775ff.; Weng Tonghe 2006, vol. 2, pp. 776ff.; Morse, vol. 2, p. 246.

  92 ‘deal with them fairly’: First Historical Archives of China & History Department of Fujian Normal University (eds), vol. 1, pp. 778–9; First Historical Archives of China (ed.) 1998, vol. 11, no. 1538

  93 Chun held sway: Weng Tonghe 2006, vol. 2, pp. 784–5; screen removed: Weng Tonghe 2006, vol. 2, p. 784

  94 Ma Xinyi: Weng Tonghe 2006, vol. 2, p. 793; First Historical Archives of China & History Department of Fujian Normal University (eds), vol. 1, pp. 814–17; ‘excessive executions’: Li Hongzhang, vol. 4, p. 76

  95 Chun to Cixi: Qing Government (ed.), Tongzhi, pp. 7285–336; Wu Xiangxiang, vol. 1, pp. 121–7; Weng Tonghe 2006, vol. 2, p. 824

  Chapter 9 Life and Death of Emperor Tongzhi (1861–75)

  97 Tongzhi starts schooling: First Historical Archives of China (ed.) 1998, vol. 11, no. 343; his education and life: Weng Tonghe 2006, vol. 2, passim.

  98 Cixi–son relationship: Weng Tonghe 2006, vol. 2, pp. 839, 849–50, 862, 882, 1068; Yu Bingkun et al., p. 240; Wang Qingqi: Wu Xiangxiang, vol. 1, pp. 218–25; Weng Tonghe 2006, vol. 2, pp. 1067, 1073; Gao Shu, p. 156

  99 Miss Alute: Xue Fucheng 1983, pp. 26–7

  100 the bride’s route and procession: Simpson, Chapter XV; Morse, vol. 2, pp. 265–6

  101 Foreign legations: Morse, vol. 2, p. 266; the wedding: Zhang Shiyun

  102 No. 2 consort: Zhang Shiyun; After the wedding: Xue Fucheng 1983, pp. 26–7; seals no longer used: Yu Bingkun et al., p. 116; ‘not be lazy’: Weng Tonghe 2006, vol. 2, p. 849; Tongzhi’s rule: Wu Xiangxiang, vol. 1, pp. 214–25; Qing Government (ed.), Tongzhi, passim; arguments over kowtow: Qing Government (ed.), Tongzhi, pp. 8226–353

  103 Cixi had already made her decision: Qing Government (ed.), Tongzhi, pp. 8287–8; Weng troubled: Weng Tonghe 2006, vol. 2, pp. 983–4

  105 Over Old Summer Palace: Wu Xiangxiang, vol. 1, pp. 206–25; Chun: Tongzhi duty to avenge father: Qing Government (ed.), Tongzhi, pp. 8527–32; Tongzhi against opposition: Weng Tonghe 2006, vol. 2, pp. 1059, 1062; Wu Xiangxiang, vol. 1, pp. 208–9, 219–26; Wu Rulun, vol. 1, p. 314; Cixi intervenes: Weng Tonghe 2005, vol. 1, p. 2; Tonghe 2006, vol. 2, p. 1063; Wu Rulun, vol. 1, p. 314

  106 Tongzhi’s medical records, his illness: Tongzhi jinyaobu, in Archives of Ming and Qing Dynasties (ed.) 1979, vol. 7, pp. 265–92; Weng Tonghe 2006, vol. 2, pp. 1073–86

  107 Cixi stands in for son: Weng Tonghe 2006, vol. 2, pp. 1076–7; Weng Tonghe 2005, vol. 1, p. 3; Wang Qingqi banished: First Historical Archives of China (ed.) 1998, vol. 24, no. 1119; Weng Tonghe 20
06, vol. 2, p. 1089

  108 Grand Princess, died: Weng Tonghe 2006, vol. 2, pp. 1092–3; Miss Alute’s death: Xin Xiuming, p. 26; Xue Fucheng 1983, p. 27; family deaths: First Historical Archives of China (ed.) 2003, vol. 3, pp. 891–2; Qing History Institute, Renmin University (ed.), vol. 12, p. 226; Yun Yuding, vol. 2, p. 789

  109 burying her son: Weng Tonghe 2006, vol. 3, pp. 1096–112; Li Yin, pp. 238–52; Qu Chunhai, pp. 39–40, 79–81

  110 ‘You have a good heart’: Carl, p. 243

  Chapter 10 A Three-year-old is Made Emperor (1875)

  113 Cixi after son died: Weng Tonghe 2006, vol. 2, pp. 1086–7; Chen Kuilong, p. 100

  114 Chun terrified: Weng Tonghe 2006, vol. 2, p. 1087; only son at the time: Aisin-Gioro Puyi, p. 29; ‘he lay in a corner’: Chen Kuilong, p. 100; Junglu: Chen Kuilong, p. 100

  115 Guangxu into palace: Weng Tonghe 2006, vol. 2, p. 1087; Zhu Shoupeng, vol. 1, p. 2; Chun resignation: Weng Tonghe 2006, vol. 2, pp. 1088–9; Zhu Shoupeng, vol. 1, p. 3

  116 Chun’s more personal tragedy: Aisin-Gioro Puyi, pp. 29–30; Cixi favours and Chun grateful: Pujia, Pujie et al., pp. 209–14; Zhu Shoupeng (ed.), vol. 2, p. 1470; Zhu Jiajin, 1982, no. 4; 10,000 taels: Chen Kuilong, p. 197, cf. pp. 120–1

  117 newspapers available to the court: Qing Government (ed.), Tongzhi, pp. 4549–56

  Chapter 11 Modernisation Accelerates (1875–89)

  118 Earl Li meetings: Li Hongzhang, vol. 31, p. 166; US President Grant: Packard, p. 711; ‘Physically he was’: Richard, p. 298; ‘synonymous’: Carl, p. 256; ‘From now on’: Zhu Shoupeng (ed.), vol. 1, p. 336

  119 Guo minister to London: Tang Jiaxuan (ed.), p. 780; Guo Songtao, passim; ‘perverse’: Kong Xiangji 2008, p. 32; Guo’s three audiences with Cixi: Guo Songtao, pp. 2–21; ‘a good man’: Zeng Jize, p. 335

  120 Hung Jun: Liu Bannong et al., pp. 11–14, 71–2; ‘no foot-dragging’: First Historical Archives of China (ed.), 1996, nos 1020, 1021; officials to travel: Wang Xiaoqiu & Yang Jiguo, pp. 1–34

  121 commission to Cuba report: Cuba Commission, p. 3; ‘You must find ways’: Li Hongzhang, vol. 6, pp. 327–8; banned slave trade: Tang Jiaxuan (ed.), pp. 75, 277, 439; Chen Lanbin: Cuba Commission, p. 5; Zhu Shoupeng (ed.), vol. 1, p. 85