19. Ninel Kurgapkina interview with the author, August 2003, St. Petersburg.
20. Montefiore, Stalin, 542; Wilson, Shostakovich, 209.
21. Krasovskaya, Vaganova, 243.
22. Plisetskaya, I, Maya, 125–26; Mikhail Lavrovsky, interview with the author, April 2004, Moscow.
23. Swift, The Art of Dance, 151; Makarova, A Dance Autobiography, 64.
24. Makarova, A Dance Autobiography, 64; Plisetskaya, I, Maya, 236.
25. Daily Express, Sep. 28, 1956.
26. Daneman, Margot Fonteyn, 330–31; Daily Express, Oct. 10, 1956.
27. New York Times, Apr. 26, 1959.
28. New York Times, Sep. 20, 1959; Walter Terry, New York Herald Tribune, May 5, 1959; Robert Kotlowitz in Show, Dec. 1962.
29. Prevots, Dance for Export, 78.
30. Natalia Roslavleva to Lillian Moore, Sep. 26, 1960, NYPL, Jerome Robbins Dance Division, *MGZMC Res. 25-393.
31. Solway, Nureyev, 180.
32. Robert Maiorano, interview with the author, June 2004, New York City; Kent, Once a Dancer, 157; Melissa Hayden, interview with the author, May 2005.
33. Prevots, Dance for Export, 82. Similarly, the Soviet critic Vadim Gayevsky later imagined that Balanchine’s Serenade was about young office girls who broke out of their confinement at night to “enact a mystery … a fantastic drama.” International Herald Tribune, Jan. 1990 (reprint of “Serving the Muse,” first published in the journal Teatr).
34. Robert Maiorano, interview with the author, June 2004, New York City.
35. Prevots, Dance for Export, 87; Taper, Balanchine, 291.
36. Roslavleva to Moore, Dec. 13, 1960.
37. Makarova, A Dance Autobiography, 24–25.
38. Acocella, Baryshnikov in Black and White, 30.
39. Plisetskaya, I, Maya, 31–32.
40. Ibid., 78, 31.
41. Ibid., 153, 109, 163–64.
42. Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers, 1:524.
43. Plisetskaya, I, Maya, 298.
44. Ibid., 174.
45. Kelly, “In the Promised Land.”
46. Croce, “Hard Work,” 134–36.
47. Irina Kolpakova, interview with the author, June 2003.
48. Makarova, A Dance Autobiography, 112.
Chapter 10: Alone in Europe
1. Violette Verdy quoted in Mason, “The Paris Opera,” 25.
2. Burrin, France Under the Germans, 348–49. Pierre Gaxotte, a virulent anti-Semite, later wrote a glowing tribute to his friend Lifar admiring his “exceptional” physique; see Schaikevitch, Serge Lifar.
3. L’Intransigeant, July 30, 1947; Mason, “The Paris Opera,” 25.
4. Veroli, “Walter Toscanini’s Vision of Dance,” 114 (italics in original).
5. Veroli, “The Choreography of Aurel Milloss, Part One: 1906–1945,” 30 (the quote was written in 1946).
6. Tomalonis, Henning Kronstam, 49–50.
7. Jowitt, Jerome Robbins, 255–56.
8. Quoted in Aschengreen, “Bournonville,” 114.
9. Guest, Ballet in Leicester Square, 143 (“full-rigged”); Searle, A New England, 567 (“music halls”).
10. Hynes, The Edwardian Turn of Mind, 342–43 (Woolf, Walpole, and Times quotes); Skidelsky, Hopes Betrayed, 284 (Brooke quotes).
11. Skidelsky, Hopes Betrayed, 118.
12. Skidelsky, The Economist as Savior, 234.
13. Skidelsky, Hopes Betrayed, 284, xxiii–xxiv (Lopokova, Keynes “I work for a Government”; Hynes, A War Imagined, 252, 313 (Bell quote, Keynes “vanishing”).
14. Lopokova and Keynes quotes, Lydia and Maynard, 53, 218, 212, 296.
15. The Camargo Society: Lydia Lopokova, choreographic director; Arnold L. Haskell, art director; Edwin Evans, musical director; John Maynard Keynes, treasurer; M. Montagu-Nathan, secretary. The Committee on Dancing included Frederick Ashton, Marie Rambert, Ninette de Valois, Tamara Karsavina, and Serafina Astafieva. Subscribers (four performances for an annual fee) included Anthony Asquith (film director and son of the British prime minister), Lord Berners, Kenneth Clark, Samuel Courtauld, Lady Cunard, Lady Juliet Duff, Edward Marsh, Lady Ottoline Morrell, Anthony Powell, Vita Sackville-West, Siegfried Sassoon, Osbert Sitwell, Lytton Strachey, H. G. Wells, Rebecca West, and Leonard and Virginia Woolf. See Vaughan, Frederick Ashton, 44.
16. Skidelsky, The Economist as Savior, 528, xxviii.
17. De Valois, Come Dance with Me, 21, 31.
18. Ibid., 61, 60.
19. Ibid., 61; Genné, “The Making of a Choreographer,” 21 (“I wanted a tradition”); de Valois, Invitation to the Ballet, 84, 78, 206, 82–83, 62.
20. Vaughan, Frederick Ashton, 1–2, 38, 5.
21. Pound, “Hugh Selwyn Mauberley (Life and Contacts).” The verse reads: “There died a myriad, / And of the best, among them, / For an old bitch gone in the teeth, / For a botched civilization.”
22. Waugh, Vile Bodies, 123; Vaughan, Frederick Ashton, 34.
23. Annan, Our Age; Beaton, The Unexpurgated Beaton, introduction.
24. Kavanagh, Secret Muses, 91.
25. Fonteyn, Autobiography, 45.
26. Daneman, Margot Fonteyn, 75.
27. Kavanagh, Secret Muses, 140, 155.
28. Vaughan, Frederick Ashton, 169.
29. Daily Mirror, Feb. 5, 1935.
30. Manchester Evening Chronicle, Sep. 17, 1944 (“Margot, the Ballerina”); Radio Times, Nov. 30, 1945 (“boom”).
31. Skidelsky, Fighting for Freedom, 51; Women’s Journal, Dec. 1945. In 1940 one journal published a “Roll of Service” for dancers, which read in part: Stanley Hall (Vic-Wells Ballet), R.N. signaler; John Hart (Vic-Wells Ballet), Home Guard; Anthony Moore (Vic-Wells Ballet), Queen Victoria’s Rifles, Rifleman; Paul Reymond (Vic-Wells Ballet), Queen Victoria’s Rifles, Rifleman; Leo Young (Vic-Wells Ballet), R.A.F. See Dancing Times, Nov. 1940, 68–69.
32. Skidelsky, Fighting for Freedom, 294.
33. Daneman, Margot Fonteyn, 190 (“It is a great theater”); Skidelsky, Fighting for Freedom, 462, 463.
34. Evening Standard, Apr. 11, 1946.
35. Daneman, Margot Fonteyn, 227–28.
36. Good Housekeeping, Feb. 1946; interview with Powell on the Carlton Video DVD of The Red Shoes, 2000. In 1948 the British Council released a short documentary film entitled Steps of the Ballet demonstrating the physical discipline and cooperative effort required of dancers. Other films in the series included Coal Face (1935), Night Mail (1936), and Instruments of the Orchestra (1946).
37. Daneman, Margot Fonteyn, 234, 241.
38. Time, Nov. 14, 1949.
39. Humphrey Jennings, Family Portrait: A Film on the Theme of the Festival of Britain 1951; Daily Herald, Apr. 10, 1951; The Star, Apr. 10, 1951.
40. Kavanagh, Secret Muses, 187.
41. Vaughan, Frederick Ashton, 302. Lincoln Kirstein wrote to Cecil Beaton: “He should refuse to do three act ballets; they are not in our tempo. He is not Petipa. Margot is a marvelous dancer, but she should be shown as herself, not as some echo of a 19th century star. Ninette is not Nicholas II. Today is 1958. The Maryinsky Theater is not Covent Garden and Henze is not Tchaikovsky. No one can write music for a THREEEEE ACCCCTTTT ballet, not Stravinsky, nor God … the Royal Ballet has no intellectual direction, no contact with necessity, that is WHAT IS ACTUALLY NEEDED for its public … it has a great theater, a subsidy, and it is a national object of veneration, and Ninette is a combination of Montgomery of Alamein and Mrs. Bowdler. If I had anything to do with it, I would blast the place open.” Kavanagh, Secret Muses, 438–39.
42. Eastern Daily Press, Feb. 22, 1958; Tynan, Tynan on Theater, 36.
43. Seymour, Lynn, 59.
44. Hewison, In Anger, 196–97 (on les Ballets Africains).
45. Seymour, Lynn, 215.
46. Kavanagh, Nureyev, 263, 280.
47. Daneman, Margot Fonteyn, 428.
48. Kavanagh, Nureyev, 265.
49. Kavanagh, Secret Muses, 455.
50. Vaughan, Frederick Ashton, 302
; Beaton, Self-Portrait with Friends, 332–34.
51. McDonagh, “Au Revoir,” 16.
52. Hewison, Culture and Consensus, 153. Civilization was created in 1967–68 and aired in 1969–70.
53. Seymour, Lynn, 186.
54. Sorell, Dance in Its Time, 130.
55. MacMillan was also an artistic associate at American Ballet Theatre in New York from 1984 to 1989.
56. Percival, The Times, Mar. 23, 1992.
57. Vaughan, Frederick Ashton, 422.
Chapter 11: The American Century I
1. Barzel, “European Dance Teachers,” 64, 65.
2. De Mille, Dance to the Piper, 45.
3. Ibid., 296.
4. In a sign of the growing enthusiasm for dance, Troy Kinney and Margaret West published The Dance in 1914, in which they called for the establishment of a subsidized “national ballet institution” that would build on the current rage for ballet. The book was reprinted in 1924, 1935, and 1936.
5. The critic Walter Sorell recalled being assigned by the State Department magazine America to write an article on Balanchine for distribution in Russia and Poland. Sorell, “ Notes on Balanchine” in Nancy Reynolds, Repertory in Review.
6. Prevots, Dance for Export, 127.
7. Opening Week of Lincoln Center, Philharmonic Hall, Sep. 23–30, 1962.
8. Benedict, ed., Public Money and the Muse, 55.
9. Chafe, The Unfinished Journey; Sussman, “Anatomy of the Dance Company Boom.”
10. New York Times Magazine, Nov. 10, 1975.
11. Kirstein, Mosaic, 103; Pound, Literary Essays, 12.
12. Duberman, The Worlds of Lincoln Kirstein, 129.
13. Ibid., 65.
14. Ibid., 177.
15. Ibid., 179.
16. Kirstein, Thirty Years, 42.
17. Balanchine to Kirstein, 1947, NYPL exhibition, “The Enduring Legacy of George Balanchine,” December 2003–April 2004.
18. Buckle, George Balanchine, 196–97; Baum, unpublished notes for a history of New York City Ballet, NYPL, Jerome Robbins Dance Division; New York Herald Tribune, Nov. 4, 1959.
19. Buckle, George Balanchine, 193; interview with Ivan Nabokov and Elizabeth Carmichael, Horizon, 3:2, Jan. 1961.
Chapter 12: The American Century II
1. De Mille, Dance to the Piper, 194; Topaz, Undimmed Lustre, 20.
2. Topaz, Undimmed, 56–58; Perlmutter, Shadowplay, 130; Chazin-Bennahum, The Ballets of Antony Tudor, 64.
3. Topaz, Undimmed, 69.
4. Ibid., 326; Perlmutter, Shadowplay, 188.
5. Topaz, Undimmed, 249.
6. Ibid., 177.
7. Ibid., 109.
8. Amberg, Ballet in America, 112–13; undated article, NYPL, Jerome Robbins Dance Division, “Antony Tudor, Clippings File.”
9. Chazin-Bennahum, The Ballets of Antony Tudor, 171.
10. The ballet was recorded for television in 1968: Ekon av trumpeter [Echoing of trumpets], videorecording produced and directed by Lars Egler for Swedish Television, 1968.
11. Topaz, Undimmed, 248.
12. Lawrence, Dance with Demons, 4.
13. Jowitt, Jerome Robbins, 64.
14. Ibid., 86.
15. Morton Baum, unpublished notes.
16. Vaill, Somewhere, 191.
17. Jowitt, Jerome Robbins, 251.
18. Garebian, The Making of West Side Story, 117–18.
19. Jowitt, Jerome Robbins, 257; Lawrence, Dance with Demons, 253.
20. Jowitt, Jerome Robbins, 266, 284.
21. Ibid., 231.
22. Ibid., 352.
23. Vaill, Somewhere, 362.
24. Lawrence, Dance with Demons, 337–38.
25. Howe, “Tevye on Broadway,” 73–75; see Slezkine, The Jewish Century.
26. Reynolds, Repertory in Review, 264.
27. “Jerome Robbins Discusses Dances at a Gathering with Edwin Denby,” Dance Magazine, July 1969, 47–55.
28. “An American Masterpiece,” Life, Oct. 3, 1969, 44. The dancer and choreographer Yvonne Rainer expressed the ideas behind the downtown postmodern dance movement: “NO to spectacle no to virtuosity no to transformations and magic and make believe no to the glamour and transcendency of the star image no to the heroic no to the anti-heroic no to trash imagery no to involvement of performer or spectator no to style no to camp no to seduction of the spectator by the wiles of the performer no to eccentricity no to moving or being moved.”
29. “Robbins Plans Retrospective,” New York Times, Dec. 2, 1987.
30. Lawrence, Dance with Demons, 455; Jowitt, Jerome Robbins, 472.
31. Jowitt, Jerome Robbins, 423.
32. Ibid., 424.
33. Ibid., 466.
34. Jenkins, By With To and From, 217–18.
35. I am grateful to John Malmstad for sharing his memory of Balanchine reciting literature.
36. Time, May 1, 1964, 58–63.
37. Stravinsky at Eighty: A Birthday Tribute, produced and directed by Franz Kraemer, Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, 1962.
38. I am grateful to Jacques d’Amboise for the “not a single extra note” quote; Joseph, Stravinsky and Balanchine, 3.
39. Kirstein, Portrait of Mr. B, 26.
40. Taper, Balanchine, 9; Kirstein, Portrait of Mr. B, 145.
41. Mason, I Remember Balanchine, 569.
42. Jacques d’Amboise interview with the author, January 2006 (“these dancers”).
43. I am grateful to Robert Maiorano for this quote.
44. Joseph, Stravinsky and Balanchine, 25.
45. Kent, Once a Dancer, 137–38.
46. For a production history of Serenade, see The Balanchine Catalogue, www.balanchine.org.
47. Taper, Balanchine, 169, 172; Lincoln Center Celebrates Balanchine 100: New York City Ballet’s 2004 Spring Gala, PBS (probably originally from the BBC show Music International) (“orange groves”).
48. Volkov, Balanchine’s Tchaikovsky, 28–29, 49, 35.
49. Balanchine quoted from an interview with Lincoln Kirstein in 1967 in Marius Petipa, Mémoires, 113.
50. Balanchine’s was not the first American Nutcracker. In 1944 William Christensen staged the ballet for the San Francisco Ballet, inspired in part by memories of Russian émigrés settled in the area.
51. Volkov, Balanchine’s Tchaikovsky, 183, 179.
52. Buckle, George Balanchine, 309; Volkov, Balanchine’s Tchaikovsky, 220.
53. Baer, Bronislava Nijinska, 60; Reynolds, Repertory in Review, 117–19.
54. New York Times, Dec. 4, 1960.
55. Bentley, Costumes by Karinska, 159, 117.
56. Joseph, Stravinsky and Balanchine, 305.
57. Ibid., 227.
58. De Lauze, Apologie de la danse, 17.
59. Fisher, In Balanchine’s Company, 2006.
60. Reynolds, Repertory in Review, 182.
61. Ibid., 183.
62. Time, Mar. 15, 1968.
63. Newsweek, Jan. 13, 1964.
64. Buckle, George Balanchine, 324.
This bibliography includes primary and secondary sources referenced in the text along with selected works that seemed to me especially good guides to a particular subject. It is organized by chapter, and therefore loosely by national tradition. At the beginning of each section I have highlighted the scholars who most influenced my own thinking. I have included some French and Italian sources but otherwise have focused on sources in English.
Archives Consulted
Archives Nationales: Paris (AN)
Bibliothèque de l’Opéra de Paris
Bibliothèque de l’Arsenal, Paris
A. A. Bakhrushin. State Central Theatre Museum Archives, Moscow
Marie Rambert Archive, London
New York Public Library, Jerome Robbins Dance Collection, New York (NYPL)
Royal Ballet Archives, London
Royal Library, Copenhagen (DDk)
Royal Theater Library, Copenhagen
Chapter One
For the ideas and i
nformation in this chapter I am especially indebted to the work of Henri Brocher, Jérôme de la Gorce, Marc Fumaroli, Wendy Hilton, Régine Kunzle, Francine Lancelot, Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, Margaret M. McGowan, and Frances Yates. I also learned an enormous amount from interviews with Francine Lancelot, Christine Bayle, Wilfrid Piollet, Jean Guizerix, Patricia Beaman, and Tom Baird conducted in the spring and summer of 1996, and with Rebecca Beck-Frijs in 2000.
Primary
Arbeau, Thoinot. Orchesography. Trans. Mary Stewart Evans. New York: Dover, 1967.
Beaujoyeulx, Balthazar de. Le Balet Comique by Balthazar de Beaujoyeulx, 1581: A Facsimile. Ed. Margaret M. McGowan. Binghamton, NY: Center for Medieval and Early Renaissance Studies, 1982.
Beaujoyeulx, Balthazar de. Balet Comique de la Royne: 1582. Turin: Bottega d’Erasmo, 1962.
Caroso, Fabritio. Courtly Dance of the Renaissance: A New Translation and Edition of the Nobilta di Dame (1600). Trans. Julia Sutton. New York: Dover, 1995.
Courtin, Antoine de. Nouveau Traité de la Civilité qui se Pratique en France Parmi les Honnêtes Gens: Présentation et Notes de Marie-Claire Grassi. Saint-Étienne: Publications de l’Université de Saint-Étienne, 1998.
Desrat, G. Dictionnaire de la Danse, Historique, Théorique, Pratique et Bibliographique. New York: Olms, 1977.
———. Traité de la Danse, Contenant la Théorie et l’Histoire des Danses Anciennes et Modernes: Avec Toutes les Figures les Plus Nouvelles du Cotillon. Paris: H. Delarue, 1900.
Dumanoir, Guillaume. Le Mariage de la Musique et de la Danse. Paris: de Luine, 1664.
Ebreo, Guglielmo. De Pratica Seu Arte Tripudii: On the Practice or Art of Dancing. Ed. and trans. Barbara Sparti, poems trans. Michael Sullivan. New York: Clarendon Press, 1993.
Faret, Nicolas. L’Honnête Homme ou l’Art de Plair à la Cour. Geneva: Slatkine Reprints, 1970.
Félibien, André. Relation de la Fête de Versailles du 18 Juillet 1668: Les Divertissements de Versailles 1674. Paris: Éditions Dédale, 1994.
Feuillet, Raoul-Auger. Choregraphie ou l’Art de Décrire la Dance par Caractères. New York: Broude Bros., 1968.
Apollo’s Angels Page 72