by Pamela Meyer
3. Richard Gray, “Babies Not as Innocent as They Pretend,” The Daily Telegraph (UK), January 7, 2007. The article cites research by Dr. Vasudevi Reddy, of the University of Portsmouth’s psychology department, who identified seven types of deception used by toddlers between six months and three years old, based on studies of fifty children and interviews with parents. Http://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/main.jhtml?xml=/earth/2007/07/01/scibaby101.xml.
Also, P. Newton, V. Reddy, and R. Bull, “Children’s Everyday Deception and Performance on False-belief Tasks,” British Journal of Developmental Psychology 18, no. 2 (June 2000): 297–317 (21); and Vasudevi Reddy, “Getting Back to the Rough Ground: Deception and ‘Social Living,’” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 362, no. 1480 (April 2007): 621–637, http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/362/1480/621.long.
4. Rebecca Dube, “Sneaky Babies Learn to Lie Before They Learn to Talk,” Globe and Mail, April 3, 2009.
5. Michael Lewis, “The Development of Deception,” in Lying and Deception in Everyday Life, eds. Michael Lewis and Carolyn Saarni (New York: Guilford Press, 1993), 90–105.
6. Maurice Schweitzer, “The Truth About Deception,” Wharton Alumni Magazine, Winter 2007. “We start to test it out as children. A 3-year-old might say something like, ‘No, I didn’t have a cookie’ testing to see if his use of deception will be rewarded with another cookie. And then you’ll give the child feedback like, ‘I see cookie crumbs on your face,’ and the child will learn to remove physical evidence because that is how he got caught…. [The] laboratory in which we live gives us great feedback with which to improve our ability to tell lies. We get clear and quick feedback as we learn almost every time whether or not our lie worked.”
7. Gail D. Heyman, Diem H. Luu, and Kang Lee, “Parenting by Lying, ” Journal of Moral Education 38, no. 3 (2009): 353–369, as reported by Jeanna Bryner, “Parents Lie to Children Surprisingly Often,” September 2009, http://www.livescience.com/culture/090929-parents-lie.html.
8. Original research conducted by Bella DePaulo, Deborah Kashy, Susan Kirkendol, and Melissa Wyer, “Lying in Everyday Life,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 70, no. 5 (1996): 979–995, as reported in Mirko Bagaric, “Is the Glass Ceiling Worth Breaking?,” The Age (Australia), February 8, 2007, http://www.theage.com. au/news/business/is-glass-ceiling-worth-breaking/2007/02/07/1170524164582.html.
9. Aldert Vrij, Detecting Lies and Deceit (Chichester, En gland: John Wiley & Sons, 2000), 13. Original research reported by C. Saarni, “An Observational Study of Children’s Attempts to Monitor Their Expressive Behavior,” Child Development 55, (1984): 1504–1513. In this study, children aged seven to eleven were given presents for helping an adult with her work. When given a dull or boring present, girls responded more enthusiastically than boys, and showed less disappointment. Also, http://www.forbes.com/2009/05/13/lie-detector-madoff-entrepreneurs-sales-marketing-liar.html.
10. DePaulo et. al, “Lying in Everyday Life” 989–990; also, Vrij, Detecting Lies and Deceit, 26–28; also, DePaulo, Jennifer D. Epstein, and Melissa M. Wyer, “Sex Differences in Lying: How Women and Men Deal with the Dilemma of Deceit,” Lewis and Saarni Lying and Deception, 126–147.
11. Bella DePaulo, Matthew Ansfield, Susan Kirkendol, and Joseph Boden, “Serious Lies,” Basic and Applied Social Psychology 26, nos. 2 and 3 (September 2004): 147–167.
12. Allison Komet, “The Truth About Lying,” Psychology Today, May 1, 1997, http://www.psychologytoday.com/articles/199705/the-truth-about-lying?page=2.
13. Komet, “Truth About Lying.”
14. DePaulo et. al, “Serious Lies,” 147–167.
15. Komet, “Truth About Lying.”
16. DePaulo et al., “Lying in Everyday Life,” 979–995.
17. According to Bella DePaulo, as reported by Komet, “Truth About Lying.”
18. Vrij, Detecting Lies and Deceit, 14–17. Research cited includes D. Kashy and DePaulo, “Who Lies?,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 70 (1996): 1037–1051; A. Vrij and M. Holland, “Individual Differences in Persistence in Lying and Experiences while Deceiving,” Communication Research Reports 3 (1999): 299–308; A. Vrij and W. Winkel, “Social Skills, Distorted Perception and Being Suspect: Studies in Impression Formation and the Ability to Deceive,” Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology 8 (1992): 2–6.
19. DePaulo and Kashy, “Who Lies?,” as reported by Komet, “Truth About Lying.”
20. DePaulo et al., “Lying in Everyday Life,” 979–995. “In 2 diary studies of lying, 77 college students reported telling 2 lies a day, and 70 community members told 1. Participants told more self-centered lies than other-oriented lies, except in dyads involving only women, in which other-oriented lies were as common as self-centered ones. Participants told relatively more self-centered lies to men and relatively more other-oriented lies to women. Consistent with the view of lying as an everyday social interaction process, participants said that they did not regard their lies as serious and did not plan them much or worry about being caught. Still, social interactions in which lies were told were less pleasant and less intimate than those in which no lies were told.” http://www.belladepaulo.com/deceptionpubs.htm#who. In the results, DePaulo clearly differentiates everyday lies from high-stakes lies.
21. Ibid.
22. Ibid.
23. Ibid., as reported by Komet, “Truth About Lying.”
24. Jennifer J. Argo, Katherine White, and Darren W. Dahl, “Social Comparison Theory and Deception in the Interpersonal Exchange of Consumption Information,” Journal of Consumer Research 22 (June 2006): 99–108, as reported by Robin Lloyd, “Why We Lie,” LiveScience, May 2006, http://www.livescience.com/health/060515_why_lie.html.
25. Adapted from the list by Aldert Vrij in Detecting Lies and Deceit, 7–8. Draws on findings in DePaulo et al., “Cues to Deception,” Psychological Bulletin 129, no. 1 (2003): 76. Supported by Paul Ekman, who provides a list of motives for lying in Telling Lies (New York: W. W. Norton, 2001), 329–330.
26. http://pogoarchives.org/m/tr/dod-memo-20060925.pdf.
27. Following the DOD investigation, the Federal Aviation Administration pursued its own investigation of Airtech and found the aerospace firm innocent of wrongdoing. It later developed that the FAA had warned Airtech about the upcoming investigation, and that the FAA’s investigative methods had earlier been extensively criticized by an FAA task force. Since the FAA and the DOD had reached such different conclusions, the House Transportation Committee asked the U.S. Office of the Inspector General to conduct its own investigation of Airtech. As of this writing, that investigation is still under way. Http://aconstantineblacklist.blogspot.com/2008/10/dod-contractor-airtech-big-rohrabacher.html. Also, http://www.pogo.org/pogo-files/alerts/transportation/tr-faa-20080522.html.
28. Rosemary Haefner, “Outrageous Résumé Lies,” CareerBuilder.com, August 2008, http://www.careerbuilder.com/Article/CB-962-Cover-Letters-and-Resumes-Outrageous-R%C3%A9sum%C3%A9-Lies/?ArticleID=962&cbRecursionCnt=1&cbsid=eace26b176804e47a22e40065d7d4609-308948792-J7-5&ns_siteid=ns_us_g_LIES_on_resume.
29. Pamela Paul, “Kid Stuff,” New York Times, October 1, 2009.
30. Emmanuel Carrere, The Adversary: A True Story of Monstrous Deception (New York: Picador, 2005).
31. Neil A. Lewis, “For Edwards, Drama Builds Towards a Denouement,” New York Times, September 20, 2009.
32. Yukari Iwatani Kane and Joann S. Lublin, “Jobs Had Liver Transplant,” Wall Street Journal, June 20, 2009, http://online.wsj.com/article/SB124546193182433491.html.
33. Robert S. Feldman, James A. Forrest, and Benjamin R. Happ, “Self-Presentation and Verbal Deception: Do Self-Presenters Lie More?,” Journal of Basic and Applied Social Psychology 24, no. 2 (June 2002): 163–170. News release: http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2002-06/uoma-urf061002.php.
34. Hershey H. Friedman, “Geneivat Da’at: The Prohibition Against Deception in Today’s World,” Jewish Law, no date available, http:/
/www.jlaw.com/Articles/geneivatdaat.html.
35. St. Augustine, De Mendacio (On Lying), translated by Rev. H. Browne, from Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, First Series, vol. 3, edited by Philip Schaff (Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1887). Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/1312.htm. Also, Robert Louis Wilken, “Augustine’s Enduring Legacy,” Bradley Lecture at the American Enterprise Institute, January 10, 2006, http://www.aei.org/publications/pubID.23661/pub_detail.asp.
36. Vrij, Detecting Lies and Deceit, 6–7. Vrij’s criteria corresponds closely to that of numerous other deception researchers, including Paul Ekman, who spells out his definition in Telling Lies, 25–28, and in “Why Don’t We Catch Liars?,” Social Research 63, no. 18 (1996): 801–817. In addition, Bella DePaulo et al. present the same criteria in the introduction to the paper “Cues to Deception.”
37. Information on Pete Rose taken from USA Today’s “The Rose Scandal” special coverage, compiled by Cesar Brioso and Peter Barzilai, http://www.usatoday.com/sports/baseball/2004-01-05-rose-timeline_x.htm.
38. This definition draws on Vrij, Detecting Lies and Deceit; Ekman, Telling Lies; and DePaulo “Cues to Deception.”
39. Margaret Talbot, “Duped,” The New Yorker, July 2, 2007, 56. For more on Defoe, see John Robert Moore, “Defoe’s Project for Lie-Detection,” American Journal of Psychology 68, no. 4 (December 1955): 672.
40. Paul Ekman, Emotions Revealed (New York: Henry Holt, 2003), 204–206. For more, see Duchenne de Boulogne, The Mechanism of Human Facial Expression (Paris: Jules Renard, 1862). New edition edited and translated by A. Cutherbertson. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990).
41. Mary Duenwald, “The Physiology of Facial Expressions,” Discover, January 2005.
42. Ekman, Emotions Revealed, 2–3. Also, Paul Ekman and Wallace Friesen, Unmasking the Face (Cambridge, Mass.: Malor Books, 2003), 23. For more, see Charles Darwin, The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, 3rd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 43. (Originally published 1872.)
43. Darwin, Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, 195.
44. Sigmund Freud, The Psychopathology of Everyday Life. Translation by A. A. Brill, 1914. Stilwell: Digireads.com, 2005. (Originally published 1901.) http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Freud/Psycho/index.htm.
45. Alfred Booth Kuttner, “What Causes Slips of the Tongue? Why Do We Forget?,” New York Times, October 18, 1914, http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?_r=1&res=9C00E3D6133DE333A2575BC1A9669D946596D6CF.
46. Malcolm Gladwell, “The Naked Face,” The New Yorker, August 5, 2002, 40–49. Also Ekman, Emotions Revealed, 2–3.
47. Ekman, Emotions Revealed, 1–2.
CHAPTER THREE: READING THE FACE
1. Darwin, Charles, The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, 3rd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), table of contents. (Originally published 1872.)
2. Ibid., “Concluding Remarks.”
3. Ibid.
4. Jerold Lowenstein, “The Science of Luck,” California Wild, Spring 2004.
5. Eric Pace, “Prof. Ray L. Birdwhistell, 76; Helped Decipher Body Language,” New York Times, October 25, 1994.
6. Margaret Mead , Blackberry Winter (New York: Kodansha America, 1995), 220.
7. George Leonard, The Silent Pulse: A Search for the Perfect Rhythm That Exists in Each of Us (Layton, Utah: Gibbs Smith, 2006), 25–26.
8. Paul Ekman, Emotions Revealed (New York: Henry Holt, 2003), 6–8. Also http://www.artknowledgenews.com/Paul_Ekman.html.
9. Mark Cook, Perceiving Others: The Psychology of Interpersonal Perception (New York: Methuen & Co., 1979), 56–57.
10. Paul Ekman, Telling Lies (New York: W.W. Norton, 2001), 150.
11. http://www.face-and-emotion.com/dataface/emotion/expression.jsp.
12. List of expressions adapted from Ekman, Telling Lies, 128–151. Also, Paul Ekman group workshop, “Emotions Revealed,” April 2008.
13. Malcolm Gladwell, “The Naked Face,” The New Yorker, August 5, 2002.
14. Ekman, Telling Lies, 16–17.
15. Michael Heller and Véronique Haynal, “Depression and Suicide Faces,” in What the Face Reveals: Basic and Applied Studies of Spontaneous Expression Using the Facial Action Coding System (FACS), 2nd ed., eds. Paul Ekman and Erika L. Rosenberg (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 496–n/a, as reported by Daniel Zalewski, “Written on the Face,” Lingua Franca, http://linguafranca.mirror.theinfo.org/9709/ip.9709.html.
16. Genyue Fu, Fen Xu, Catherine Ann Cameron, Gail Heyman, and Kang Lee, “Cross-cultural Differences in Children’s Choices, Categorizations, and Evaluations of Truths and Lies,” Developmental Psychology 43, no. 2 (March 2007): 278–293, http://content2.apa.org/journals/dev/43/2/278.
17. “Japanese May Be Better Than Americans at Detecting Lies,” Medical News, April 2007, http://www.news-medical.net/?id=23196.
18. Keens Hiu Wan Cheng and Roderic Broadhurst, “The Detection of Deception: The Effects of First and Second Language on Lie Detection Ability,” Psychiatry, Psychology and Law 12, no. 1 (June 2005): 107–118, http://goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/gi_0199-4509429/The-detection-of-deception-the.html.
19. “International Study of Lying Shows Different Attitudes Among Cultures,” May 17, 2004, http://govpro.com/issue_20040101/gov_imp_28737/.
20. Ibid.
21. Charles F. Bond, Jr., Adnan Omar, Adnan Mahmoud, and Richard Neal Bonser, “Lie Detection Across Cultures,” Journal of Nonverbal Behavior 14, no. 3 (September 1990): 189–204, http://www.springerlink.com/content/r414681657143728.
22. Fayez A. Al-Simadi, “Detection of Deceptive Behavior: A Cross-Cultural Test,” Social Behavior and Personality, January 1, 2000, http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P3-56358431.html.
23. Ekman, Telling Lies, 36, 127, 149–160. Also in Paul Ekman and Wallace Friesen, Unmasking the Face (Cambridge, Mass.: Malor Books, 2003), 99–113, 135–153.
24. Deborah Blum, “Face It,” Psychology Today, September/October 1998.
25. Nathan Fox and Richard Davidson, “Electroencephalogram Asymmetry in Response to the Approach of a Stranger and Maternal Separation in 10-Month-Old Infants,” Developmental Psychology 23, no. 2 (March 1997): 233–2 40. This is cited by Ekman and Rosenberg in What the Face Reveals, 212. Online record at: http://eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ355941&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=eric_accno&accno=EJ355941.
26. Zhi Zhang, Vartika Singh, Thomas E. Slowe, Sergey Tulyakov, and Venugopal Govindaraju, “Real Time Automatic Deceit Detection from Involuntary Facial Expressions” University at Buffalo, New York, 2007, http://www.cedar.buffalo.edu/~govind/CSE666/fall2007/deceit_detection_cvprbiometrics07.pdf.
27. Ekman, Telling Lies, 132.
28. Adapted from materials provided by American Academy of Neurology, “Often Missed Facial Displays Give Clues to True Emotion, Deceit,” ScienceDaily, May 2000, http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2000/05/000503181624.htm.
29. John Reid & Associates, interviewing and interrogation training manual. Supported by most research on deception, summarized by Aldert Vrij in Detecting Lies and Deceit (Chichester, En gland: John Wiley & Sons, 2000), 36–39. “Gaze aversion is not a reliable indicator of deception…Evidence that eye movements indicate deception is lacking. Even those authors who suggested that this relationship exists never presented any data supporting their view” (38).
30. Evan Marshall, The Eyes Have It: Revealing Their Power, Messages, and Secrets (New York: Citadel Press, 2003), 18.
31. Tom Lutz, Crying: The Natural and Cultural History of Tears (New York: W. W. Norton, 1999), 56.
32. Ekman, Telling Lies, 144–147. See also Paul Ekman, J. Campos, R. J. Davidson, and F. DeWaals, “Darwin, Deception, and Facial Expression,” in Emotions Inside Out, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1000 (December 2003): 205–221.
33. John M. Gottman, PhD, and Nan Silv
er, The Seven Principles for Making Marriage Work, (New York: Three Rivers Press, 1999), 29–31. Also see http://www.enotalone.com/article/3938.html.
34. Tara Parker Pope, “Can Eye Rolling Ruin a Marriage?,” Wall Street Journal, August 6, 2002, http://online.wsj.com/article/SB1028578553586958760.html.
35. Ekman, Telling Lies, 147–149. Also, Paul Ekman, interview, “The Lying Game,” BBC, produced by Suzanne Levy.
36. Wen Li, R. Zinbarg, Stephan Boehm, and Ken Paller, “Neural and Behavioral Evidence for Affective Priming from Unconsciously Perceived Emotional Facial Expressions and the Influence of Trait Anxiety, Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 20 (2008): 95–107, as reported in “Microexpressions Complicate Face Reading,” Medical News Today, August 2007, http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/78447.php.
CHAPTER FOUR: READING THE BODY
1. Fred E. Inbau, John E. Reid, Joseph P. Buckley, and Brian C. Jayne, Essentials of the Reid Technique, Criminal Interrogation and Confessions, (Sudbury, En gland: Jones and Bartlett Publishers, 2005), 25–35, 123.
2. Stan B. Walters, Principles of Kinesic Interview and Interrogation (New York: CRC Press, 1996).
3. Maurice Schweitzer, with R. Croson, “Curtailing Deception: The Impact of Direct Questions on Lies and Omissions,” International Journal of Conflict Management 10, no. 3 (1999): 225–248, per Schweitzer, “Deception in Negotiations,” in Wharton on Making Decisions, eds. Stephen J. Hoch and Howard C. Kunreuther (Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons, 2001), 199. There is some debate as to the actual breakdown of verbal and nonverbal forms of communication, but this estimate of nonverbal tools falls within the general range of consensus.
4. http://www.answers.com/topic/body-language.
5. John Bulwer, Chirologia: or the naturall language of the hand. Composed of the speaking motions, and discoursing gestures thereof. Whereunto is added Chironomia: or, the art of manuall rhetoricke. Consisting of the naturall expressions, digested by art in the hand, as the chiefest instrument of eloquence (London: Thomas Harper, 1644), 5.