by Andrew James
For Darius’s own account of the period, see the Behistun Inscription. A translation by L. W. King and R. C. Thompson (‘The sculptures and inscription of Darius the Great on the rock of Behistûn in Persia, London, 1907’) may be found on the livius.org website.
Modern texts which I found useful for general Persian life and history included The Persians by M. Brosius (Routledge, London, 2006); Ancient Persia by J. E. Curtis (The British Museum, London, 2000); and The Forgotten Empire: The World of Ancient Persia edited by J. E. Curtis and Nigel Tallis (The British Museum, London, 2005).
For details of the Persian military and other information see Shadows in the Desert, Ancient Persia at War by Dr K. Faroukh (Osprey, Oxford, 2006). For ancient warfare in general, have a look at Greek Warfare: Myths and Realities by H. Van Wees (Duckworth, London, 2005); The Roman Army at War by A. K. Goldsworthy (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1998), with its excellent data on the carrying capacity of various beasts of burden, which I assume to be unchanged over the four centuries before Rome; Alexander the Great and the Logistics of the Macedonian Army by D. Engels (University of California Press, Berkeley, 1980), which is helpful in relation to the rations needed by soldiers and beasts of burden; Warfare in the Ancient World by B. Carey, J. Allfree and J. Cairns (Pen and Sword Military, South Yorkshire, 2005); and The Horse in the Ancient World by A. Hyland (Sutton Publishing, Gloucestershire, 2003).
There are many books available on ancient Egypt, but my favourites include Egypt of the Pharaohs by Sir A. Gardiner (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1964); The Routledge Dictionary of Egyptian Gods and Goddesses edited by G. Hart (2nd edn, Routledge, London, 2005); and Eternal Egypt by Pierre Montet (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London, 1964). See also The Priests of Ancient Egypt by Serge Sauneron, translated by David Lorton (Cornell University Press, New York, 2000).
By far the best book I have found on the Western Desert and its oases is The Western Desert of Egypt by Cassandra Vivian (American University in Cairo Press, New York, 2002), which I thoroughly recommend. The only bad thing about its detailed account of the desert is that it comes to an end. See also Siwah Oasis by Ahmed Fakhry (American University in Cairo Press, New York, 1992).
Glossary
A Note on Language
There are some words in the book, such as ‘jinn’, which Darius certainly would not have known, as they arrived with Persia’s Arab conquerors a thousand years later. Others, such as ‘barbarian’, are anachronistic. But where they are commonly used in English, and necessary to the meaning of the story, I have allowed them.
Many of the names familiar to us from ancient Persia are Greek corruptions of the original Persian names. Thus ‘Cyrus’ was really ‘Kurush’, ‘Cambyses’ was ‘Kambujiya’, Hystaspes was ‘Vishtaspa’, Achaemenid was ‘Ha’chomaniashi’, and so on. Unfortunately, the original Old Persian names are unpronounceable to most English readers so I have adopted the familiar Greek versions.
Ahura Mazda – the ‘Wise Lord’ or ‘Good Spirit’, the Zoroastrian god.
Angra Mainyu – the ‘Angry Being’ of Zoroastrian belief, perhaps a forerunner of the Judaeo-Christian ‘devil’. It is noticeable that, to the ancient Persians, the word daeva meant a devil, although to the neighbouring Indians it meant a god (as it does to most Indo-European languages, hence our word ‘divine’); whereas a daemon to Persians was a good spirit, not a devil – again, the exact obverse of our English word ‘demon’. For a detailed explanation, see J. P. Mallory, in his fascinating book In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology and Myth.
apadana – a columned audience hall.
Aria or Arya – a satrapy in eastern Persia, inhabited by the Arians, or Haraiva (‘the noble ones’), an Iranian tribe. The Iranian tribes are all ultimately from the same Indo-European stock that also spread into Europe (where the Indo-Europeans came from is a matter of hot debate) and the Persian language shares the same Indo-European roots as Latin (and hence English, German, French and Italian languages, and so on) as well as Sanskrit.
Aryan – a much-misused term in twentieth-century history, its original meaning was ‘noble’, or ‘nobility’, and had nothing to do with blue eyes or blond hair. The ancient Persians called themselves Aryans, or ‘noble people’, from whence comes the modern name for Persia, ‘Iran’ (‘Land of the Aryans’).
dukshish – princess
figure-of-eight shield – the Persians had at least two types of shield, the spara and the figure of eight, the Persian name for which does not seem to be clear. The figure of eight was made of reed and leather, possibly with a central metal boss. It was shaped a little like a large violin, with cut-outs at each side through which, presumably, a spear could be thrust. It was lighter to carry in battle than the heavy Greek shields but gave less protection.
Haldi – Ancient Armenian god.
hoplite – a Greek soldier wearing the classical panoply of bronze helmet, cuirass and greaves, and carrying a sword, spear and large round shield.
hoplon – normally used as the term describing the large, round, bronze-skinned wooden shield a hoplite carried, though some say the word should apply to the whole panoply. The weight of the shield was such that it would generally be rested on the left shoulder or on the ground.
the Immortals – opinion is divided as to whether the Immortals were actually known to the Persians by this name. Nevertheless, I have kept it in the novel. Partly I have used it because there is no other universally recognized name for the 10,000 crack guards who protected the King of Kings (and ancient writers do confirm an elite unit of guards of that size existed); partly because we are all so accustomed to it; and partly because it sounds appropriate. It also fits in with the Zoroastrian concept of the Holy Immortals who surrounded Ahura Mazda, ‘Attendants of the Great King’.
kandys – a short, sleeveless cloak.
khanjar – large, ornate, flat-bladed dagger, still worn ceremonially by Arabians today, especially in Oman. Worn at the front of a man’s waist in a curved, L-shaped scabbard.
kitaris – the ancient Persian crown, which looked much as we would imagine a crown, with a circle of crenulations, and, as far as is known, the forerunner of our archetypal crown.
Ma-Saka – the Ma-Saka, Massagetae or Moon-Scythians were an Iranian Scythian tribe, also sometimes called Sacae. See also ‘Saka’.
pairidaeza – the root, of course, of our word ‘paradise’. The Persians were great lovers of nature and were fond of these large walled gardens in which many types of exotic trees and plants were gathered.
Pirradazish – the imperial courier system that used relays of riders on fresh horses to carry a message rapidly across the Empire.
phalanx – the Classical Greek military formation, which evolved over the years into the formidable weapon of war that Alexander the Great later used to such good effect.
Saka – a variety of (probably related) Scythian nomadic tribes of the Steppe, skilled in archery and horsemanship. Tribes included the Saka Tigrakhauda (‘pointed-hat Scythians’), Saka Haumavarga, who are said to have drunk a narcotic stimulant brew called haoma (the source of which is disputed) and the Ma-Saka, Massagetae or Moon Saka. Recent research in Bactria-Margiana, an increasingly important archaeological site in Turkmenistan, suggests that haoma-drinking was practised by a wide range of Saka tribes across the region.
satrap – a provincial governor.
satrapy – a province.
spara – a tall rectangular shield, the height of a man, made by inserting reeds into wet leather which then dried rigid. In battle it was rested on the ground. The spara was held only by the front rank of the army; the other ranks would shelter behind, firing arrows. It was adopted from the Assyrian and Babylonian pattern, where offence was by means of arrows, the shield and spear providing defence. The spara was probably out of place in a face-to-face battle such as the phalanx fought.
stratekos – a Greek general or high-ranking military commander.
syntagma – a lower ran
king Greek military commander
Tistar – Sirius, the star.
usabari – camel-mounted cavalry, usa being a camel.
Yauna – Persian for ‘Greek’ (derived from Ionia), used here interchangeably with our English word. I often imagine (and portray) the Persians spitting it as a term of abuse.
yazata – the spirit of a mountain, lake, forest or other place. Around the time of Darius, the Persians became monotheists, worshipping Ahura Mazda to the exclusion of other gods. But belief in local spirits probably continued unofficially.
zagallah – date harvesters in Siwa Oasis
Geography
Place names
Arachosia – province in modern Afghanistan.
Aria – province near Herat in modern Afghanistan.
Bactria – province in modern Afghanistan.
Barca – Greek colony city, close to Cyrene in Libya.
Cyrene – Greek colony city on the Libyan coast, located near to modern Benghazi, on the line of march to Carthage. The ruins are still visible today.
Ecbatana – literally translated as ‘the meeting place’. Site of the Summer Palace, and the modern city of Hamadan, in Iran.
Edom – the biblical name for a tribal land most of which is now part of modern Jordan.
Great Oasis – modern Kharga Oasis in Egypt.
Land of the Cow – see Ta-Ihet
Margiana – province around modern Turkmenistan.
Memphis – near modern Cairo, also called Mennefer or Ineb-Hedj.
Nashirmeh – ‘lost’ city, incredibly discovered in December 2006 beneath the ruins of Bam in eastern Iran, which was decimated in the earthquake of 2003. Before this, archaeologists had wrongly believed that it was a city in Elam, far to the west. The alternative name for Nashirmeh was Paishiyauvada.
Nisaia – a fertile plain in Medea, near Hamadan (Ecbatana), famous in Darius’s day for the region’s large warhorses.
Northern Oasis – modern Bahariya Oasis in Egypt.
Oasis of the Two Lakes – Bahrein Oasis (which roughly means ‘between the lakes’) in modern Egypt.
Paishiyauvada – see Nashirmeh.
Parsa – I have assumed the ancient city of Parsa to be at or near the site of Persepolis, the great capital city which Darius later built.
Parthava – a Persian satrapy later known in the West as Parthia.
Pathragada (Pasargadae) – the capital of the Persian Empire. Established by Cyrus as a wide, spaced garden city. There is little left today although Cyrus’s tomb, nearby, is largely intact.
Pelusium – port city and fortress near the eastern border of Egypt. Called ‘Sin’ in the Bible, it has long been the gateway to the Sinai Desert. Very little is left, though the salty plain is still there.
Place of the Two Swords – modern Dakhla Oasis, Egypt.
Sela – probably located near modern Petra. Mentioned in the Bible, Sela was the Edomite capital, sitting atop a treacherous but picturesque mountain. There is little visible today except a few tumbledown ruins. The more famous and impressive ruins at Petra date from several centuries after Darius’s time.
Sikayauvatish – a hilltop castle somewhere in Medea, mentioned by Darius in the Behistun Inscription.
Siwa – Siwa Oasis, Egypt. The Oasis of Ammon, it was possibly called ‘Santariyya’ in ancient times but this is uncertain. Whatever its ancient name, it is a large, fertile depression in the Libyan/Western Desert, up to 22 metres below sea level and up to 80 kilometres wide. Siwa overlies a huge aquifer, from which the numerous springs bubble. The water is very salty, very hard, often tinged red with what I believe is iron, and in its raw state is pretty undrinkable to modern tastes, but it has sustained desert dwellers for thousands of years. Cleaned up, it is bottled and sold throughout Egypt as spring water.
Siwa is 560 kilometres from Memphis as the vulture flies, but the ancient caravan trail is 750 kilometres long. The modern road to Cairo is about 850 kilometres. Siwa’s stone-built Temple of Ammon, where the Oracle functioned, is still standing atop the hill in all its glory. The modern Siwans are Berbers. They are possibly related to, but not direct descendants of, the Ammonians of Darius’s day, who were a mixture of Greeks, Libyans and Egyptians, and whose culture was probably a similar mixture.
Spring of the Shade – Ain Della, a tiny and beautiful oasis in modern Egypt, near to the border with Libya. It is now the heart of a military zone, used by the Egyptian Army to patrol the desert. It is the archetypal oasis, a true jewel in the desert.
Ta-Ihet – ‘Land of the Cow’, modern Farafra Oasis, Egypt.
Thebes-Luxor – probably known to the ancient Egyptians as ‘Waset’.
Verkana – or Hyrcania (‘The Wolf Land’), now Gorgan Province in northern Iran. The ‘Hyrcanian Ocean’ is what is now known as the Caspian Sea.
Yaksharta River – Jaxartes River (or Syr Darya River) in modern Kazakhstan.
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Published in Penguin Books 2013
Copyright © Andrew James, 2013
Extract from Myths from Mesopotamia translated by Dalley (2008), 4 lines from page 212, used by permission of Oxford University Press
Cover artwork by Lick Creative/Hayley Jackson: [email protected]
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ISBN: 978-1-40-591280-8