Nicolaus remains a source for anecdotes about Gaius. Plutarch’s and Suetonius’ lives of Caesar throw light on Caesar’s activities, as do Appian and the commentaries on the Alexandrian war and the African war, written by Caesarian supporters. Plutarch’s life of Cato recounts his suicide. Here and elsewhere I am indebted to Michael Grant’s Cleopatra.
“I shall have the whole Senatorial” Dio 45 2 5–6.
“with body and limbs” Suet Aug 79 2.
“He attracted many women” Nic 4.
“he was of age” Ibid.
“The year/Drags for orphan boys” Hor Ep 1121–22.
Alexander the Great’s Macedonian commanders For more on Alexander, see Green, Peter, Alexander of Macedon (London: Penguin, 1974), and on his successors the same author’s Alexander to Actium (London: Thames and Hudson, 1990).
“this little trick” Plut Caes 49 2.
“As far as they say” Plut Ant 27 2–3.
“Many rulers of Egypt” Plut Ant 27 3–4.
“enjoyed himself” App 290. Some modern historians discount the historicity of this jaunt, largely on the grounds that Caesar would not be so irresponsible. However, one of the features of his character was an arrogant carelessness. Also, Appian says that he provides more detail (now sadly lost) of this adventure in his Egyptian history, from which it is reasonable to assume that the journey was well attested.
“for a sight of the boy” Nic 4.
“he might bring on illness” Ibid., 6.
attitude toward suicide This section is indebted to van Hoof.
“had hard work to withstand” Caes Gall 61.
“take any cruel action” Dio 43 15 2.
“The Republic is nothing” Suet Caes 77.
IV. UNFINISHED BUSINESS
Appian and Dio provide the basic historical narrative, Nicolaus, Plutarch, and Suetonius color and anecdote.
On the day of the triumph Some generic details are taken from Plutarch’s description of Aemilius Paullus’ triumph (Plut Aem Pau 32–35).
The most popular attraction This section is indebted to Carcopino, Grant Glad, and Meijer.
“He took care” Nic 8.
“according to my uncle’s instructions” Ibid., 10.
“I have often fought” Plut Caes 56 3.
“He made a point” Nic 11.
“nothing womanly about her” Vell Pat 2742.
It is probable that Octavius When Nicolaus reports that he asked for, and received, permission to go home and see his mother, he does not make it clear where Octavius was at the time of the request. It would make more sense if he was at Labici than en route to Italy (otherwise, why would he have asked leave to go to his journey’s obvious destination?).
“sexual gratification” Nic 15.
“should sail” Celsus 111. It is worth noting that in later life, Octavius lived abstemiously, a habit that may well have been developed in his youth.
V. A BOY WITH A NAME
Nicolaus gives most information about Octavian’s stay at Apollonia and his return to Italy. He, Plutarch, and Suetonius give accounts of the Ides of March.
“great and important city” Cic Phil 11 26.
“You must show yourself” Nic 16.
another letter from Atia The implication when App 39–10 and Nic 16 are compared suggests that Atia wrote with the immediate news and then followed up with a second letter from her and Philippus; but the references could be to the same letter.
knew that the assassination Plut Ant 13 1.
“Why, this is violence!” Suet Caes 82 1.
like a wild animal App 2117.
“already had his eyes” Nic 18.
“followers call him Caesar” Cic Att 366 (14 12).
major eruption R. Stothers, 2002: “Cloudy and Clear Stratospheres Before A.D. 1000 Inferred from Written Sources,” J. Geophysical Research, Vol. 107, No. D23.
“wars that grow in the dark” Virg Geo 464–68.
stars could be seen Pliny 22798.
“everything to his name” Cic Phil 13 11 25.
“Heap as many insults” App 328.
“Could anything be” Cic Att 388 15 10.
“Octavian…does not lack” Ibid., 3901512.
“On the very day” Pliny 22393–94. Octavian wrote his autobiography, now lost, in 25 B.C. The discussion of the games is indebted to J. Ramsey and A. Lewis Licht, The Comet of 44 B.C. and Caesar’s Funeral Games (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1997), pp. 236f.
“Mad with anger” This paragraph and the following, including the quotations, are drawn from App 339.
VI. FROM VICTORY, DEFEAT
Appian’s and Cicero’s speeches against Antony, the Philippics, are the best sources. Dio also covers the subject.
“You will learn” App 343.
“He is very much a boy” Cic Att 420 (16 11).
“a blowout” Cic Phil 3820.
“If your are successful” Macr 23 12.
“The Ides of March was a fine deed” Cic Att 366 (14 12).
“Gaius Caesar is a young man” Cic Phil, 323.
“this heaven-sent youth” Ibid., 51643.
“I promise, I undertake” Ibid., 18 51.
“praised, honoured—and raised up” Cic Fam 401 11 20.
“He reflected on the way” App 364.
In the first week or so of April My description seeks to reconcile differences among the sources—App 366–72, Cic Fam 378 10 30, and Dio 37–38.
“they put the survivors” App 370.
“He did not reappear” Suet Aug 10 4.
“Though bleeding and wounded” Ibid., 10 4.
“It is quite incredible” Cic Brut 12 2 (1 6 2).
“Nature forbids me” App 373.
“I have given plenty of hints” Ibid., 380.
“this abominable war” Cic Fam 384 10 14.
“spineless readiness to serve” App 392.
twelve vultures It can be argued that this story is a fiction put about by Octavian’s propagandists. It seems unlikely, though, that such a public event was invented when thousands of Romans could give it the lie.
VII. KILLING FIELDS
Appian provides a detailed narrative, and Dio also covers this period. Plutarch and Suetonius evoke the impact of Philippi on individuals. The discussion of Sextus Pompeius is indebted to Sextus Pompeius, Anton Powell and Kathryn Welch, eds.
“he carried it out more ruthlessly” Suet Aug 27 1.
he let his own uncle Plut Ant Comp 51.
“Many people were murdered” App 413.
One tragic tale Ibid., 430.
A funerary inscription Laudatio Turiae, ILS.
“You provided abundantly” Ibid., 2a.
A year later That is, after the battle of Philippi.
“That matter was soon” Laudatio Turiae 11, ILS.
“I did not take my father’s line” Suet Aug 70 2.
still a very young man App 5133. For Sextus’ age, see Powell/Welch, pp. 105–6.
“Whoever makes his journey” Quoted, from an unidentified play, by App 285.
“With his greater mobility” Ibid., 483.
“His small boats” Ibid., 436.
“for the sake of ensuring harmony” Vell Pat 2623.
According to Agrippa and Maecenas Pliny 745.
“[Octavian] heard of the situation” Dio 47 37.
“fog of war” The phrase originated in the Napoleonic Wars and referred to the clouds of smoke produced by black gunpowder. The Prussian military thinker Karl von Clausewitz used the term to refer to the difficulty of getting reliable information, even of the most basic sort, during a war.
“returned looking more like porters” App 4 112.
“Tell him I wish him” Ibid.
“gave orders” Val Max 171.
spent three days skulking Pliny 7 148.
“Some committed suicide” App 4 115–16. Perhaps a generic description.
“like women, inactive and afraid” Ibid., 4123.
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��as though they were tipping over” Ibid., 4128.
“O wretched valour” Dio 47 49 2.
“Yes, that’s right, but with our hands” Plut Brut 52 3.
“a singularly gentle nature” Ibid., 29 3.
“That’s a matter for the carrion birds” Suet Aug 13 2.
Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus He is the Enobarbus of Shakespeare’s Antony and Cleopatra.
“We two once beat a swift retreat” Hor Odes 27. Some have argued that leaving one’s shield on a battlefield was a familiar literary device. Maybe, but it must often have happened in real life. There is no reason to disbelieve the often autobiographical poet.
VIII. DIVIDED WORLD
Appian and Dio are the main sources. Plutarch’s life of Mark Antony is important, especially his famous account of Antony and Cleopatra’s meeting at Tarsus.
“People came in groups” App 512.
“From what other source” Dio 48 8.
“He learned from actual experience” Ibid.
“They came very near to killing” Ibid., 48 9.
“The civilian population” App 518.
“entirely clearing pirates” Plut Pomp 26 4.
“To most people” Plut Ant 24 4.
“circus-rider of the civil wars” Sen Suas 17.
“[She] was in a barge” Plut Ant 26 1–2.
“for the happiness of Asia” Ibid., 26 3.
“the soldier rather than the courtier” Ibid., 27 1.
“had earnestly devoted himself” Dio 48 27 2.
“And why should anyone” Ibid., 48 10 4.
surprised by a sudden sortie Suet Aug 14.
“I seek Fulvia’s clitoris” For these messages, see CIL 11 2.1 1901.
“[Octavian] took vengeance” Suet Aug 15.
“our fatherland’s Perusian graves” Prop 1223–4.
“Because Antony fucks Glaphyra” Mart 11 20.
Octavian was accused of loose living For the anecdotes that follow, see Suet Aug 68–70.
“Look how the queen’s finger beats the drum!” Ibid., 68.
“aggravated her illness deliberately” App 559.
“deeply attached to his sister” Plut Ant 31 1.
“in military and Roman fashion” Dio 48 30 1.
“Antony did not win general approval” App 565.
IX. GOLDEN AGE
Appian and Dio are the main sources, with material from Suetonius. Plutarch’s life of Antony describes the encounter at Misenum in some detail. Two of Virgil’s eclogues and passages in the Georgics cast light on the political scene.
“He was tall” Suet De Vir Ill, Life of Virgil 8–11.
“The Firstborn” Virg Ecl 47–10.
about to leave politics It is possible that the poem was written a year earlier, in 41 B.C., before Pollio’s consulship in 40 B.C.
“For my part” Macr 2421.
As soon as the crowd For this account, see App 568.
“My only ancestral home” Plut Ant 32 3.
“Shall I cut the cables” Ibid., 32 4–5.
gravis femina Sen Ep 870.
“I couldn’t bear the way” Suet Aug 62 2.
“friendship gone mad” Sen Ep 19.
the sex of her child Suet Tib 14 2, Pliny 10 75 154–5.
Livia and the baby Suet Tib 62.
“What are you doing” Dio 48 44 3.
“How fortunate” Suet Clau 11.
The Roman marriage ceremony I am indebted to Carcopino, pp. 87–88, and to Smith, p. 252, for my account of Livia’s wedding.
an eagle flew by Suet Galb 1.
White Poultry Ad Gallinas Albas was rediscovered at Prima Porta outside Rome in the nineteenth century. Extensive ruins of the villa remain, although they are not open to the public. See La villa di Livia a Prima Porta (Rome, 1984), published by Messineo with coauthor Carmelo Calci in the series Lavori e studi di archeologia, pubblicati dalla soprintendenza archeologica di Roma.
X. FIGHTING NEPTUNE
This chapter depends mainly on Appian’s militarily astute account of the Sicilian war in Book 5 of his Civil Wars, with some support from Dio and anecdotes from Suetonius.
“At daybreak, as he looked out” App 588.
According to Homer Hom Od 12 86ff.
“as broad as a wagon road” Strabo 545.
“If the worst” Plut Ant 35.
“Come and see me” Hor Ep 1415–16.
“Of small build” Ibid., 120.
“If I don’t love you” Suet De Vir Ill (Life of Horace).
a lighthearted poem The section that follows is based on Hor Sat 15.
“second Rome” Cic Phil 12 3 7.
“for ball-games” Hor Sat 1549.
“Here, like an utter fool” Ibid., 1582–85.
“I will win this war” Suet Aug 16 2.
“He took a beating” Ibid., 70 2.
“to steal over” App 5 109.
believing he was about to be captured Pliny 7147–49.
“terribly distressed” Dio 49 5 4.
“On the eve of the battle” Suet Aug 16 2.
“bringing with him” Vell Pat 2803.
“was hit on the breastplate” App 5 125.
“You will when you’re dead” Ibid.
142…Antony’s approval Ibid., 5144.
XI. PARTHIAN SHOTS
Appian and Dio are complemented by Plutarch, who in his life of Mark Antony covers the Parthian expedition in detail.
tribunicia sacrosanctitas There is confusion in the sources. Appian wrongly says Octavian became tribune for life, whereas Dio asserts simply sacrosanctitas. Dio gives two separate dates when Octavian was given full tribunician power or potestas, 30 and 23; he may not have accepted the offer on the first occasion, or perhaps only certain powers. He first used potestas in 23.
“jealous of [Ventidius]” Dio 49 21 1.
nobody saw anything especially scandalous When Plut Ant 36 2 speaks of “deep resentment among the Romans,” this almost certainly reflects later propaganda about Cleopatra’s evil influence over Antony.
expelled a man from the Senate Plut Cat 17 7.
“When your organ is stiff” Hor Sat 1 2 116ff.
Horace had his bedroom: Suet De Vir Ill (Life of Horace).
“every woman’s man” Suet Caes 52 3.
he prepared for suicide Florus 22010.
“greeted him” Plut Ant 43 1.
“truly noble devotion” Ibid., 54 2.
XII. EAST IS EAST AND WEST IS WEST
Dio’s and Appian’s histories of the Illyrian wars cover Augustus’ campaigning. Dio’s and Plutarch’s lives of Mark Antony describe the Donations of Alexandria. Strabo provides topographical information.
“considered to be the bravest” Dio 49 36 3.
one leg and both arms Suet Aug 20.
“beauty of person” Florus 223; Florus (c. A.D. 70 to c. A.D. 140) wrote a history of Rome based on Livy.
Armenia was turned into a Roman province Within a couple of years the political situation went into reverse, and both Armenia and Media returned to the Parthian fold.
“He had no complaint” Dio 49 36 1.
Antony issued a coin See Grant, Cleo, p. 169.
“give judgement on the Capitol” Dio 5054.
“And the Alexandrians thronged” C. P. Cavafy, “Alexandrian Kings.” In Edmund Keeley and Philip Sherrard, trans., Collected Poems (London: The Hogarth Press, 1975).
XIII. THE PHONY WAR
For the city of Rome, see Stambaugh, Dupont, and Connolly & Dodge. Dio, and Plutarch’s life of Mark Antony, with support from Suetonius, are the main narrative sources.
Near it stood a hut The bases together with post holes of three huts were recorded during excavations of this part of the Palatine in 1907. They can be dated to the eighth century B.C., about the time of the legendary foundation of the city.
Agrippa took up the post of aedile For his activities, see Dio 49 42.
“failed to conduct himself” Suet Aug 17 1.
/> The Triumvirate’s second term There is some dispute about the timing of triumviral terms. Appian says that the Triumvirate was due to expire at the end of 32 B.C. However, some argue that that would imply an unevidenced break at the end of 37 B.C. for one year. Augustus claims in Res Gestae an unbroken ten years as triumvir. On balance, the end of 33 B.C. seems the most likely date.
“a madman” Suet Aug 86 3.
“What’s come over you?” Ibid., 69 2. I follow Michael Grant’s opinion that “uxor mea est” is the question “Is she my wife?,” not the statement “She is my wife.” See Grant Cleo, pp. 185–86. Some scholars believe that in 37 or perhaps 33 Antony agreed to become Cleopatra’s prince consort. As I write (pp. 156–57), this is unlikely.
“Your soldiers have no claim” Plut Ant 55 2.
“Domitius and Sosius” Dio 49 41 4.
“himself with a bodyguard” Ibid., 50 5–6.
“As they did not dare” Ibid., 50 2 5–6.
XIV. SHOWDOWN
Dio’s and Plutarch’s lives of Antony are the main sources. Carter gives the authoritative modern account of Actium.
the path to success Jos Ant 15 [6, 6] 191.
a kind of personal plebiscite The chronology is uncertain. I follow Syme RR, pp. 284ff.
“The whole of Italy” Res Gest 25.
lodged his will with the Vestal Virgins Some argue (for example, Grant Cleo, p. 193) that Antony would not be so stupid as to do this and that the document was a forgery. I disagree. Was Julius Caesar being stupid when he did the same thing before his planned departure for the east? There was a general assumption that people would play by the rules and avoid sacrilege.
Octavian read through the document in private If the will was forged, or at least those parts of it that Octavian made public, why are there no reports of a rebuttal by Antony or his supporters?
“extraordinary and intolerable” Plut Ant 58 4.
the promontory of Actium My treatment of the battle of Actium, which follows, is indebted to John M. Carter’s The Battle of Actium, an authoritative account. The ancient writers often describe accurately enough what took place, but without understanding why, and leaving out important incidents that have to be inferred. Nevertheless the broad outline of the battle is clear enough.
“My services to Antony” Vell Pat 2864.
“What is so terrible” Plut Ant 62 3.
“press-ganging travellers” Ibid., 62 1.
“Antony, although he was deeply grieved” Ibid., 63 2–3.
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