45. Hill, Gesta Francorum, p. 2, ‘The Gauls organised themselves into three parts. One group of Franks entered the region of Hungary, namely Peter the Hermit and Duke Godfrey…’
46. Riley-Smith, First Crusaders, p. 56.
47. Adhemar of Chabannes, Chronicon, bk III, c. 47, pp. 166–7; Gieysztor, ‘Genesis of Crusades.
48. Albert of Aachen, Historia, p. 272; for Peter’s retirement and foundation of the Augustinian abbey at Neumoustier near Huy, dedicated to the Holy Sepulchre and John the Baptist ‘in remembrance and veneration of the church of Jerusalem’, Chronica Albrici monarchi Trium Fontium a monarcho novi monasterii Hoiensis interpolata, MGHS, xxiii, 815; Giles of Orval, Gesta episcoporum Leodiensium, MGHS, xxv, 93.
49. Naser-e Khosraw, Book of Travels, p. 39; C. Cahen, ‘La Chronique abrégé d’al-Azimi’, Journal Asiatique, 230 (1938), 430; C. Hillenbrand, The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives (Edinburgh 1999), p. 50.
50. C. De Vic and J Vaissete, Histoire générale de Languedoc, v (Toulouse 1875), col. 737–8; Riley-Smith, The First Crusade, p. 21.
51. France, Victory, p. 194; Albert of Aachen, Historia, pp. 348–9; for Alexius and westerners see the articles by J. Shepard, ‘Aspects of Byzantine Attitudes’; ‘Alexius and the First Crusade’; ‘When Greek Meets Greek: Alexius Comnenus and Bohemund in 1097–8’, Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies, 12 (1988), 185–277; ‘The English in Byzantium’, Traditio, 29 (1973), 52–93. The Sicilian point I owe to Dr Jeremy Johns.
52. Orderic Vitalis, Ecclesiastical History, iii, 134–6; v, 156–9.
53. Frutolfi et Ekkehardi Chronica, ed. F.-J. Schmale and I. Schmale (Darmstadt 1972), p. 106. C. Haskins, ‘A Canterbury Monk at Constantinople’, English Historical Review, 25 (1910), 293–5; Shepard, ‘Cross-purposes’, pp. 116–22.
54. Duparc-Quioc, La Chanson d’Antioche, v, 3449.
55. J. and L. Riley-Smith, Crusades, pp. 44, 52.
56. Hill, Gesta Francorum, pp. 19–20.
57. Jerusalem Mirabilis, in R. L. Crocker, ‘Early Crusade Songs’, The Holy War, ed. T. P. Murphy (Columbus, Ohio 1976), pp. 78–98.
58. Guibert of Nogent, Gesta Dei, pp. 140–41.
59. By Riley-Smith, First Crusaders, esp. pp. 93–105.
60. RHC Occ., iii, 727–30.
61. Duparc-Quioc, Chanson d’Antioche, v, 7921.
62. Guibert of Nogent, Gesta Dei, p. 124.
63. Fulcher of Chartres, A History of the Expedition to Jerusalem 1095–1127, trans. F. R. Ryan, intro. H. S. Fink (Knoxville 1969), pp. 66–7.
64. These cited by Riley-Smith, First Crusaders, pp. 113–14.
65. Ralph of Caen, Gesta Tancredi, RHC Occ., iii, 605–6; for Thomas of Marle, Suger of St Denis, Vita Ludovici Grossi regis, ed. H. Waquet (Paris 1929), pp. 30–34, 174–8 and pp. 150–51 for Stephen of Blois; Guibert of Nogent, Gesta Dei, p. 79 for William; for Raimbold, PL, clxii, cols. 144–5 and C. J. Tyerman, The Invention of the Crusades (Basingstoke, 1998), pp. 11–12.
66. Quoted by Somerville, Prolegomena to the Decreta Claromontensia, in Papacy, Councils and Canon Law, VI, pp. 33–5.
67. Guibert of Nogent, Gesta Dei, p. 251; Deeds of God through the Franks, trans. R. Levine (Woodbridge 1997), p. 156.
68. Vita Altmanni, p. 230.
69. Sigebert of Gembloux, Chronica, p. 367; for his hostility to papal use of indulgences for war, MGH, Libelli de Lite Imperatorem et Pontificum, ii (Hanover 1892), 464.
3: The March to Constantinople
1. Sigebert of Gembloux, Chronica, p. 367; Albert of Aachen, Historia, pp. 274, 277, 289, 340; Raymond of Aguilers, Historia iii, 244; Hill, Gesta Francorum, pp. 2–3; Guibert of Nogent, Gesta Dei, p. 136 and passim; Riley-Smith, First Crusade, esp. pp. 111–12, 141–2, 147–8; Hagenmeyer, Kreuzzugsbriefe, pp. 141–2, 146; France, Victory, pp. 148, 210.
2. The best modern account of the campaign is France, Victory.
3. Raymond of Aguilers, Historia, trans. J. H. and L. L. Hill. p. 91.
4. The Lorraine and German expeditions are the prime concern of Albert of Aachen, Historia, p. 272 et seq. For chronology, see J. W. Nesbitt, ‘The Rate of March of Crusading Armies’, Traditio, 19 (1963), who amends H. Hagenmeyer, Chronologie de la première croisade (Paris 1902).
5. Guibert of Nogent, Gesta Dei, pp. 140–92 and 142–3 for his hostile account of Peter; cf. F. Duncalf, ‘The Peasants’ Crusade’, American Historical Review, 26 (1920–21), 440–53, esp. p. 441.
6. Guibert of Nogent, Gesta Dei, pp. 183–4.
7. Anna Comnena, Alexiad, p. 286 and pp. 293–308; Shepard, ‘Cross-purposes’, esp. p. 115 for comments on this background.
8. Nesbitt, ‘Rate of March’, esp. p. 173; Albert of Aachen, Historia, pp. 278–82 for the size of the army and length of line in the Balkans.
9. Albert of Aachen, Historia, p. 280.
10. Albert of Aachen, Historia, p. 288.
11. Chazan, European Jewry p. 23 and, in general, pp. 1–37.
12. R. Chazan, ‘1007–1012: Initial Crisis for Northern European Jewry’, Proceedings of the American Academy for Jewish Research, 38–9 (1970–71), 101–17.
13. Chazan, European Jewry, p. 36.
14. Runciman, History of Crusades, i, 137 and pp. 134–41 for the pogrom; cf. Chazan, European Jewry, pp. 50–136; the chief Jewish sources are translated by S. Eidelberg, Jews and the Crusaders, pp. 21–75, 79–93, 99–115. Emich of Flonheim used to be known to historians as Emich of Leinengen, A. V. Murray, ‘The Army of Godfrey de Bouillon: Structure and Dynamics of a Contingent on the First Crusade’, Revue Belge de Philologie et d’Histoire, 70 (1992), 315–22.
15. Eidelberg, Jews and Crusaders, p. 36.
16. Eidelberg, Jews and Crusaders, p. 50.
17. Albert of Aachen, Historia, p. 295.
18. Guibert of Nogent, De vita sua, ed. E.-R. Labande (Paris 1981), pp. 246–8; Albert of Aachen, Historia, p. 293; Ekkehard of Aura, Hierosolymita, RHC Occ., v, 20.
19. Eidelberg, Jews and Crusaders, p. 108 (the Mainz Anonymous); in general Chazan, European Jewry, pp. 72–84; cf. the awkward passages in Riley-Smith, First Crusade, pp. 53–7.
20. Eidelberg, Jews and Crusaders, pp. 21, 112.
21. Hagenmeyer, Kreuzzugsbriefe, pp. 138, 139.
22. Cf. Riley-Smith, First Crusade, p. 50.
23. Chazan, European Jewry, p. 145.
24. Tyerman, England and the Crusades, p. 19; Hagenmeyer, Kreuzzugsbriefe, pp. 137–8.
25. Actes des comtes de Flandres 1071–1128, ed. F. Vercauteren (Brussels 1938), pp. 65–6, no. 22; the count of Roucy is a witness.
26. Fulcher of Chartres, History, p. 74.
27. Preserved in mangled form by Anna Comnena, Alexiad, pp. 313–14.
28. ‘Elias who had deserted from the emperor…’, Alexiad, p. 314.
29. H. E. Mayer, Mélanges sur l’histoire du royaume Latin de Jérusalem (Paris 1984), pp. 17, 22–7, 43, 44, 49; Murray ‘The Army of Godfrey de Bouillon’, pp. 301–29, esp. pp. 314, 327.
30. Hill, Gesta Francorum, p. 2; G. Paris, ‘La Chanson du pèlerinage de Charlemagne’, Romania, 9 (1880), 1–50; J. Flori, ‘Pur eschalier sainte crestienté. Croisade, guerre sainte et guerre juste dans les anciennes chansons de geste françaises’, Le Moyen Age, 97 (5th series vol. v, 1991), 171–87.
31. Albert of Aachen, Historia, p. 274.
32. Albert of Aachen, Historia, p. 311, and pp. 305–11 for the Constantinople stand-off.
33. This, at least, is the impression given by Albert of Aachen, who listened to them.
34. See now J. D. Howard-Johnston, ‘Anna Komnene and the Alexiad’, in Alexios Komnenos, ed. M. E. Mullett and D. Smythe (Belfast 1996); J. France, ‘Anna Comnena, the Alexiad and the First Crusade’, Reading Medieval Studies, 10 (1983), 20–32.
35. Runciman, History of Crusades, i, 157–8.
36. On Bohemund’s expedition, Hill, Gesta Francorum, pp. 7–9 et seq., whose author was with it; E. Jamison, ‘Some Notes on the Anonymi Gesta Francorum’; on Bohemund’s position on the crusade, J. Shepard,
‘When Greek Meets Greek’, Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies, 12 (1988), 185–276.
37. Marquis de la Force, ‘Les Conseillers latins du basileus Alexis Comnene’, Byzantion, xi (1936), 153–65; D. Nicol, ‘Symbiosis and Integration; Some Greco-Latin Families in Byzantium’, Byzantinische Forschungen, 7 (1979), 113–35; W. B. McQueen, ‘Relations between the Normans and Byzantium 1071–1112’, Byzantion, 56 (1986), 427–76.
38. Shepard, ‘Greek Meets Greek’ for these details.
39. Raymond of Aguilers, Historia, trans. J. H. and L. L. Hill, p. 22.
40. France, Victory, p. 98.
41. For Spain, Bull, Knightly Piety, p. 83.
42. Raymond of Aguilers, Historia, trans. J. H. and L. L. Hill, p. 18.
43. According to William of Poitiers, see Shepard, ‘Aspects of Byzantine Attitudes towards the West’.
44. On Robert’s crusade and career, C. W. David, Robert Curthose, Duke of Normandy (Cambridge, Mass. 1920); cf. William of Malmesbury, Gesta Regum, ed. W. Stubbs, Rolls Series (London 1887–9), ii, 433, 460, 461 for later myths and gossip.
45. France, Victory, p. 129.
46. Hagenmeyer, Kreuzzugsbriefe, p. 149.
47. Fulcher of Chartres, History, pp. 75–6.
48. J. H. Pryor, ‘The Oath of the Leaders of the First Crusade to the Emperor Alexius Comnenus: Fealty, Homage’, Parergon, 2 (1984), 111–41; France, Victory, pp. 107–21 for a trenchant account; cf. Shepard, ‘Cross-purposes’ and ‘Greek Meets Greek’.
49. France, Victory, p. 154.
50. Anna Comnena, Alexiad, pp. 315, 325, 327, etc.
51. Raymond of Aguilers, Historia, trans. J. H. and L. L. Hill, p. 73.
52. Raymond of Aguilers, Historia, trans. J. H. and L. L. Hill, p. 24.
53. Anna Comnena, Alexiad, p. 329; cf. the embarrassed Gesta Francorum, p. 12.
54. Hagenmeyer, Kreuzzugsbriefe, p. 140.
4: The Road to the Holy Sepulchre
1. France, Victory, pp. 165–9 and, for Egyptian negotiations in general, pp. 211, 252–4 302, 304, 317, 325–6; cf. R. J. Lilie, Byzantium and the Crusader States 1096–1204 (Eng. trans. Oxford 1993), chap. 1, pp. 1–60.
2. Ibn al-Qalanisi, The Damascus Chronicle of the Crusades Extracted and Translated from the Chronicle of Ibn al-Qalanisi, trans. H. A. R. Gibb (London 1932), p. 41; G. Dedeyan, ‘Les Colophons de manuscrits arméniens comme sources pour l’histoire des croisades’, The Crusades and their Sources: Essays Presented to Bernard Hamilton, ed. J. France and W. G. Zajac (Aldershot 1998), pp. 89–110; P. M. Holt, The Age of the Crusades (London 1986), p. 27 for the translation of al-Sulami.
3. Hill, Gesta Francorum, p. 21 and throughout the account of the siege of Antioch, pp. 28 et seq. For an account of the Christian communities in the Levant, see below pp. 226.
4. Emerton, Correspondence of Gregory VII, p. 94.
5. See the discussion and references in R. Ellenblum, Frankish Rural Settlement in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem (Cambridge 1998), pp. 20–22.
6. For brief general surveys, see Holt, Age of Crusades and R. Irwin, The Middle East in the Middle Ages (London 1986).
7. Hill, Gesta Francorum, p. 21.
8. Fulcher of Chartres, History, p. 85; for the best modern account of the battle and its location, France, Victory, pp. 169–85, which also provides the most detailed narrative of the crusaders’ campaigns in Asia Minor, Syria and Palestine.
9. Hill, Gesta Francorum, pp. 19–20.
10. Raymond of Aguilers, Historia, trans. J. H. and L. L. Hill, pp. 28–9; Hill, Gesta Francorum, p. 23; Fulcher of Chartres, History, pp. 87–8; Albert of Aachen, Historia, pp. 340–42.
11. Albert of Aachen, Historia, pp. 347–8.
12. Hill, Gesta Francorum, pp. 25–6.
13. On this Armenian strategy, France, Victory, pp. 190–96.
14. Fulcher of Chartres, History, pp. 88–92 (p. 90 for the number of knights).
15. For the Chanson d’Antioche, see the edition of S. Duparc-Quioc (Paris 1977–8); R. F. Cook, ‘Chanson d’Antioche’, chanson de geste: le cycle de la croisade est-il épique? (Amsterdam 1980); for other stories, Tyerman, England and the Crusades, pp. 22–3; cf. the stained glass sequence on the crusade at St Denis, c.1146–7.
16. Anna Comnena, Alexiad, pp. 438–9.
17. For Bohemund’s ambitions, J. Shepard, ‘When Greek Meets Greek’; T. S. Asbridge, The Creation of the Principality of Antioch 1098–1130 (2000), pp. 15–42.
18. Raymond of Aguilers, Historia, trans. J. H. and L. L. Hill, p. 31.
19. Usamah Ibn-Munqidh, An Arab-Syrian Gentleman and Warrior in the Period of the Crusades: Memoirs of Usamah Ibn-Munqidh, trans. P. K. Hitti (reprint Princeton 1987), pp. 149–50.
20. Raymond of Aguilers, Historia, trans. J. H. and L. L. Hill, p. 35.
21. J. A. Brundage, ‘Prostitution, Miscegenation and Sexual Purity in the First Crusade’, Crusade and Settlement, ed. P. Edbury (Cardiff 1985), pp. 57–65.
22. Raymond of Aguilers, Historia, pp. 36–7; J. Richard, ‘La Confrérie de la première croisade: à propos d’un episode de la première croisade’, Etudes de civilisation médiévale: mélanges offert à E. R. Labande, ed. B. Jeannau (Poitiers 1974), pp. 617–22.
23. Hagenmeyer, Kreuzzugsbriefe, pp. 141–2, 144–6, 146–9.
24. Albert of Aachen, Historia, p. 435; France, Victory, pp. 209–20 and refs.
25. Hill, Gesta Francorum, pp. 34–5; Raymond of Aguilers, Historia, trans. J. H. and L. L. Hill, p. 37; cf. Shepard, ‘Greek Meets Greek’.
26. Hagenmeyer, Kreuzzugsbriefe, p. 150.
27. Hagenmeyer, Kreuzzugsbriefe, p. 149; Raymond of Aguilers, Historia, trans. J. H. and L. L. Hill, p. 59; Gesta Francorum, p. 63.
28. Hill, Gesta Francorum, p. 46 and, for the author’s apparently eyewitness and certainly dramatic account of the episode, pp. 44–8.
29. The butcher may have been a shepherd, according to the thirteenth-century Ibn al-Athir, Arab Historians of the Crusades, trans. F. Gabrieli (London 1984), pp. 6–7; for other references, France, Victory, p. 267.
30. Hagenmeyer, Kreuzzugsbriefe, p. 150.
31. Orderic Vitalis, Ecclesiastical History, v, 98; vi, 18.
32. A leading figure in these events left the most detailed record: Raymond of Aguilers, Historia, trans. J. H. and L. L. Hill, pp. 51–61, but cf. Hill, Gesta Francorum, pp. 57–60, 65–6 and the letters accepting the Lance’s authenticity, of Anselm of Ribemont, July 1098, and the crusade leaders, Sept. 1098, Hagenmeyer, Kreuzzugsbriefe, pp. 159–60, 163; C. Morris, ‘Policy and Visions: the Case of the Holy Lance at Antioch’, War and Government in the Middle Ages, ed. J. Gillingham and J. C. Holt (Woodbridge 1984), pp. 33–45.
33. Dedeyan, ‘Les Colophons’, pp. 94–5.
34. Raymond of Aguilers, Historia, trans. J. H. and L. L. Hill, p. 52.
35. For Peter’s later visions, Raymond of Aguilers, Historia, trans. J. H. and L. L. Hill, pp. 66–72, 76–8, 93–103; cf. France, Victory, p. 322; Morris, ‘Policy and Visions’, pp. 42–3; Runciman, History of the Crusades, i, 273–4.
36. Raymond of Aguilers, Historia, trans. J. H. and L. L., Hill, pp. 108, 110, 122–3, 128; on relics in general, cf. pp. 111–13.
37. Fulcher of Chartres, History, p. 106; Hill, Gesta Francorum, p. 67 and Orderic Vitalis, Ecclesiastical History, v, 108 for Herluin the interpreter; France, Victory, pp. 270–96.
38. Cf. Anna Comnena, Alexiad, pp. 348–50 with Hill, Gesta Francorum, pp. 63–5, Lilie, Byzantium and the Crusader States, esp. pp. 32–60.
39. Hagenmeyer, Kreuzzugsbriefe, pp. 161–5; cf. the earlier letter from the princes April/July 1098, which lacks anti-Greek vitriol, pp. 153–5.
40. Hagenmeyer, Kreuzzugsbriefe, pp. 155–6.
41. See note 1 above and refs. for Egyptian negotiations.
42. Raymond of Aguilers, Historia, trans. J. H. and L. L. Hill, pp. 74–5 (‘peace of discord’).
43. For cannibalism at Ma ‘arrat Gesta Francorum, p. 80; Raymond of Aguilers, Historia, trans. J. H. and L. L. H
ill, p. 81; in general, Guibert of Nogent, Gesta Dei, pp. 241–2; the main ‘source’ is the later Chanson d’Antioche which places the first outbreak at Antioch: L. A. M. Sumberg, ‘The “Tafurs” and the First Crusade’, Medieval Studies, 21 (1959), 224–46, esp. 235–46. Sumberg argues for a Flemish origin of the Tafurs and their ‘king’. Albert of Aachen, usually a rich source for north-eastern Frenchmen, does not mention them.
44. Raymond of Aguilers, Historia, trans. J. H. and L. L. Hill, pp. 81–3; Hill, Gesta Francorum, p. 81.
45. For the events at Arqah, Raymond of Aguilers, Historia, pp. 87–113; Hill, Gesta Francorum, pp. 83–5; France, Victory, pp. 316–26 and pp. 326–31 for march to Jerusalem. For Urban II’s alleged decree on the right of conquest, R. Somerville, ‘The Council of Clermont and the First Crusade’, Studia Gratiana, 20 (1976), 335–7, but cf. J. Richard, The Crusades (Cambridge 1999), p. 112.
46. Raymond of Aguilers, Historia, trans. J. H. and L. L. Hill, p. 113 comments on their rotting timbers.
47. Raymond of Aguilers, Historia, trans. J. H. and L. L. Hill, p. 116; Hill, Gesta Francorum, p. 87.
48. The best modern accounts are J. Prawer, ‘The Jerusalem the Crusaders Captured’, Crusade and Settlement, ed. Edbury, pp. 1–16; France, Victory, pp. 330–57.
49. Albert of Aachen, Historia, p. 470; Hill, Gesta Francorum, p. 90; Raymond of Aguilers, Historia, trans. J. H. and L. L. Hill, pp. 121–3.
50. Albert of Aachen, Historia, pp. 476–7.
51. Gesta Francorum, p. 91; Raymond of Aguilers, Historia, trans. J. H. and L. L. Hill, pp. 127–8.
52. S. Goitein, ‘Contemporary Letters on the Capture of Jerusalem by the Crusaders’, Journal of Jewish Studies, 3 (1952), pp. 165, 173 and, in general, pp. 162–77.
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