by Robin Brown
It is a tragedy but small wonder that poor Marco, in his own lifetime, was regarded as the biggest liar that had ever been and was lampooned at medieval fairs by clowns as a teller of a million tall tales. But were these attacks not simply egocentric Europeans refusing to accept that behind the veils of the mysterious, apostate East, two wild horsemen from the steppes had built a civilisation to equal anything the West had to offer? Book Two is Marco Polo’s irrefutable affidavit to all this and it must have been very hard, not least for the all-powerful Christian church, to stomach.
Book Two
LORD OF LORDS
The epithet Kublai Khan means ‘Lord of Lords’, one to which he is quite entitled, I would say, in that he surpasses any sovereign who has ever lived in terms of the number of his subjects, the extent of his territories and the size of his income. I hope I can also persuade you that he indeed commands more obedience from his subjects than any monarch who has ever lived.
Kublai Khan is directly descended from Genghis Khan, founder of the Tartar empire. He is the sixth of his line and began his reign in 1256. Even though he is the legitimate heir he had to fight for the throne against his brother and his officers of the court. But his courage, virtue and prudence carried the day.
Today in the year 1288, he has been on the throne for thirty-two years and is eighty-five years of age. Prior to ascending the throne he served industriously in the army where he had a reputation for bravery and daring. His judgement and military skills earned him a reputation as the most able and successful commander that ever commanded the Tartar army.
Once on the throne he quit the field and entrusted the conduct of military expeditions to his captains and his sons, with one vital exception. One of Kublai’s nephews, a young chief called Nayan, took over a number of cities and provinces gaining resources that enabled him to raise an army of some four hundred thousand horse. Pride got the better of him when he found himself at the head of so many men and he resolved to throw off the allegiance he and his predecessors had paid to the Grand Khan and usurp the sovereignty.
Nayan secretly despatched messengers to Kaidu, the powerful chief of Turkistan and the nephew of Kublai, who was rebelling against the Grand Khan. (He hated Kublai, who had punished him for several serious offences, with a passion.)
To Kaidu, therefore, Nayan’s proposals were very attractive and he promised to bring one hundred thousand horses into the alliance. But the assembling of so large a force could not be kept hidden from the Grand Khan and he immediately reacted by closing all the passes leading to the countries of Nayan and Kaidu to cover his own preparations. He assembled a force of three hundred and sixty thousand horse from troops stationed within ten days’ march of the city of Kanbula and another million infantrymen were enlisted from among his private guard, his falconers and domestic servants. Within twenty days they were ready. This was clever planning. Had Kublai relied on the standing army charged with the protection of the provinces of China, they would have required thirty or forty days to assemble and this would have allowed time for the enemy to establish commanding positions. As it was, Kublai fell on Nayan before he had joined forces with Kaidu and destroyed him absolutely.
It is worth noting here that in North and South China, as well as other parts of the empire, there are many disloyal and seditious people ranged against the Grand Khan. There is an ever-present threat of rebellion that obliges Kublai to maintain Tartar armies a few miles outside the large cities and centres of population ready to move in at a moment’s notice. He changes these armies and these officers every two years.
Such precautions result in the population being kept in quiet subjugation and few uprisings are attempted. The troops are paid out of imperial revenues and they have their own cattle and milk which they sell in city markets to provide them with all they need. You thus have a string of Tartar troops across the country at distances of thirty, forty and sixty days’ journey. Even if half of them were collected in one place you would not believe the multitude.
Kublai’s advance on Nayan was carried out in complete secrecy even though it involved a forced march that continued night and day for over a fortnight. Road blocks were set up and all who sought to pass were made prisoner. Kublai halted his troops on a plain overlooking Nayan’s encampment and rested them for two days. Astrologers were called in and declared before the whole army that Kublai would win. (The Grand Khan routinely brought in astro-logers to inspire the troops with a promise of victory.)
The following morning the army tore down the hill springing on an unprepared enemy, with no scouts, or advanced guards. Nayan himself was asleep in his tent with a wife. By the time Nayan awoke, it was too late to get his army into proper fighting order and all he could do was curse the fact that he had not yet joined up with Kaidu.
Kublai advanced in a huge wooden castle mounted high on the backs of four elephants armoured with thick, hardened leather and livery of cloth of gold. The castle housed many crossbowmen and archers and bore the royal standard adorned with the sun and the moon. Thirty battalions of horse, each ten thousand strong, and troopers armed with bows, followed behind. Two wings swept out to outflank Nayan’s army.
Five hundred infantrymen, armed with short lances and swords, marched in front of each battalion of horse. If the enemy took flight these men were trained to mount behind the horse soldiers until they caught up with the enemy, whereupon they set to work killing the enemy horses with their lances.
Once the Grand Khan’s army was in position all manner of wind instruments, a seemingly infinite number, were sounded, followed by the singing of songs as was the Tartar custom before battle commenced. The start of the battle was signalled with the clash of cymbals, the beating of drums and more singing. I tell you, it was wonderful to hear.
Kublai first ordered the flanking troops to attack and they were soon involved in bloody conflict. The air was filled with arrows which rained down causing huge casualties of men and horses. The shouts of the combatants, the hiss of weapons and the screams of the horses were enough to strike terror in the strongest hearts.
With their arrows discharged, the armies locked in hand-tohand combat wielding swords, lances and maces shod with iron. Such was the slaughter that men and horses were piled in vast heaps and neither side could advance. For a long time the outcome was undecided and victory wavered between the contestants from morning until noon. Nayan, who had the reputation of a liberal and indulgent leader, commanded such zealous devotion from his troops that they were all prepared to die rather than turn their backs on the enemy.
Finally, Nayan realised he was completely surrounded and attempted to save himself by flight. He was soon captured, however, and brought before the Grand Khan who ordered that he be put to death. The actual execution was bizarre. Kublai believed that the sun and the air should not witness the death of a prince of royal blood so Nayan was enclosed in two carpets which were beaten and shaken until life had departed from his body.
Those of Nayan’s troops who had survived the battle (all inhabitants of the provinces of Chorza Kauli, Banskol and Sitinque) submitted and swore allegiance to Kublai.
Nayan, it turned out, had privately undergone the ceremony of baptism although he never openly admitted to being a Christian. He bore the sign of the cross on his banners and lost a vast number of Christians in the battle. Saracens and Jews who saw these banners taunted the surviving Christians: ‘Just look at the state to which you and your Christian banners are reduced.’
They complained to the Grand Khan and he ordered the taunters to appear before him and handed out this sharp rebuke, ‘If the cross of Christ has not performed to Nayan’s advantage that is because he defied justice and reason by rebelling against his Lord. He was a traitor and to such wretches it could not afford protection. Let none presume to charge with injustice the God of the Christians who is Himself the perfection of goodness and justice.’ The Grand Khan was always very even-handed in his treatment of the several religious faiths in the emp
ire.
After his victory over Nayan he returned in triumph and with great pomp to his capital city of Kanbula and remained there until March. This was our Easter and being aware that it was one of our principal religious occasions, he commanded all the Christians to attend him and bring with them their book containing the four gospels of the evangelists. He had it repeatedly perfumed with incense, he kissed it and directed all the nobles who were present to do the same. This was his usual practice with the principal festivals of the Christians and he also observed the festivals of Saracens, Jews and idolaters. Asked about his motives he replied, ‘There are four great Prophets revered and worshipped by the four different classes of mankind: Jesus Christ who is held to be divine by Christians, Mahomet for the Saracens, Moses to Jews and the idolaters have Sogomombarkan. I honour and respect all four and look for help to whomsoever among them is supreme in heaven.’
But you only have to see the way he behaves in the presence of Christians to know that he regards Christianity as the truest and the best; nothing, he’s been heard to say, was professed by its followers that was not replete with virtue and holiness. He will not, however, allow Christians to carry the cross before them in their processions, arguing that it was the device on which Christ was scourged and ignominiously put to death.
One might ask why, having shown such a preference for Christianity, he did not get himself baptised. He once gave this answer to my father and uncle when he sent them as his ambassadors to the Pope:
Why should I become a Christian? You yourselves have seen that the Christians of these countries of mine are ignorant, inefficient people who do not seem able to perform miracles, whereas the idolaters can perform them at will. When I sit at table the cups in the middle of the hall come to me (of their own accord) filled with wine for me to drink, without being touched by human hand.
The yogis of the idolaters can control bad weather and direct it anywhere they want in the heavens. They are wonderfully gifted with things of that nature. You yourselves have seen that their idols can speak and have the power of prophecy. But what extraordinary powers, what miracles have been displayed by the priests of Christianity, the nobles of my court who do not believe in Christianity will ask. The idolaters can make the claim that miracles are the product of their sanctity and the influence of their idols. The nobles will think I am making a grievous error not acknowledging the power of the yogis to forecast my death.
But then he said to my father and Uncle Maffeo,
So I want you to return to your Pontiff and ask him to send me a hundred persons so skilled in your laws as to be able to convince the idolaters that they too can perform miracles if they want but refrain from doing so because they involve conjuring up evil spirits. If these holy men can get the idolaters not to engage in such practices in their presence, I will ban idolatry and get myself baptised. I expect my nobles will want to follow my example, indeed my subjects in general. We will have more Christians than you do in your country.
If only the Pope had been prepared to send us people really qualified to teach the gospel I think the Grand Khan would have embraced Christianity. He certainly seems to have had a strong liking for it.
But I have rather wandered off the subject. I wanted to tell you about the rewards and honours Kublai bestows on those who distinguish themselves by their valour in battle. A council of twelve of the most intelligent of his nobles is appointed to assess the conduct of the officers of the army. Their reports are presented to Kublai and he makes his promotions accordingly, from among those who have commanded a hundred to those commanding a thousand, and so on. They also get presented with silver trophies as well as the customary warrant to command or govern. These warrants are in the form of valuable metal tablets, silver for the commander of one hundred, gold on silver gilt for one thousand and gold embossed with the head of a lion for those chosen to take on a command of ten thousand. The silver tablets weighed 20 ounces and those with the lion’s head almost 40 ounces. They specify the privileges, duties and powers of the holder.
Those given the command of one hundred thousand men are honoured with a gold tablet weighing about 60 ounces, embossed with the image of a lion and the moon. Whenever such a person rides in public an umbrella is carried over his head in recognition of his high rank and when he sits it is always upon a silver chair. On certain of his nobles the Grand Khan confers tablets bearing an impression of a gerfalcon. These honoured few are authorised to command, as a guard of honour, the entire army of any great prince. They can also make use of the horses of the imperial stud at their pleasure and appropriate the horses of any officer inferior in rank.
Kublai, who, as I have said, is styled Grand Khan or Lord of Lords, is neither tall nor short but of middling stature. He is well formed and well proportioned. He has a fair complexion that is occasionally suffused with red, like the flush of a rose, which adds much grace to his countenance. His eyes are black and handsome and his nose well shaped and prominent. He has four principal wives and the eldest born son of any of them may accede to the throne. They all bear the title of empress and have their separate courts. They are each attended by no fewer than three hundred young female attendants of great beauty. Then there are a multitude of young pages, eunuchs and ladies of the bedchamber. Each of the courts has a total staff of some ten thousand!
When the Grand Khan desires the company of one of his empresses he either sends for her or goes to her palace. Many concubines are also provided for his pleasure. They mostly come from a province of Tartary called Ungut where there is a city of the same name and the women are famous for the fairness of their complexions and their beauty.
The Grand Khan’s officers go to Ungut every other year, sometimes more often, to collect for him four or five hundred (or more!) of the most beautiful young women. They are chosen in the following way. Qualified persons are appointed to inspect the girls for facial beauty, quality of the hair, eyebrows, the mouth and lips and other features. The overall look of the first is also judged and then they are valued – 16, 17, 18 or 20 or more carats. The Grand Khan usually takes girls of 20 or 21 carats. When they arrive at court a new set of inspectors makes a further selection. About thirty or forty are usually selected for the Grand Khan to have his way with. Ahead of that, however, these chosen few are placed in the care of the wives of certain noblemen who watch them at night to make sure they have no concealed imperfections, do not snore, have sweet breath and are free of unpleasant body odours.
Finally the first who pass all the rigorous tests are split into groups of five. For three days and nights they attend the Grand Khan in his private apartments where they are expected to perform every service that is required of them. Quite literally, he does with them as he likes.
Each party takes its turn and then the first five go in again. A group is also on duty in an outer chamber to provide the Grand Khan with anything he wants in the way of food and drink. Essentially he is waited on hand and foot by these obliging young females.
Those he does not fancy are given to the different lords of the household and they are taught cookery, dressmaking and other suitable tasks. Courtiers looking for a wife can have one of these young ladies together with a handsome settlement if the Grand Khan says so. One way or another they are all disposed of to noble households.
You might think that the people of Ungut would feel aggrieved at their daughters being commandeered by the sovereign in this way. Not a bit of it. They regard it as an honour and a favour, particularly the fathers of beautiful daughters who are especially pleased. ‘If’, they say, ‘my daughter is born under an auspicious planet to good fortune his majesty can fulfil her destiny with a noble match; which I could not do.’ On the other hand if the daughter is guilty of misconduct or falls out of favour in any way, the father blames it on the malign influence of the stars.
The Grand Khan has had twenty-two sons by his four legitimate wives. The eldest was Genghis (named after his great ancestor) who, had he lived, would have inhe
rited all Kublai’s titles and the government of the Empire. Genghis fortunately has a son, Themur, who will succeed in his place. Themur is in good health and he has wisdom and valour, having proved himself in several successful battles. Besides this Kublai has twenty-five sons by his concubines and they are all continuously employed in the army where they have also proved to be brave soldiers. They have the rank of noblemen. Seven of his legitimate sons run extensive provinces and kingdoms. In my view, they all govern with wisdom and prudence as is only to be expected of the children of the greatest of the Tartars.
I want to return now to where Kublai usually resides from December to February, the great city of Kanbula, in the north-east corner of China, also known as Cathay. On the southern side of the city stands Kublai’s vast palace that is enclosed by a wall and a deep ditch. The walls form a square each side of which is 8 miles long. There are four equidistant gates set in these walls. At the heart of the complex a second wall encloses a space a mile across where the troops are billeted. Outside this another mighty wall encompasses a 6-mile square which has three gates on the north side and three to the south. The middle gates are larger than the outer two and are always kept shut other than when the Emperor uses them to come and go. The smaller gates provide public access.
Eight handsome and spacious buildings house the royal military stores. Each contains a separate category of stores: cavalry ordnance such as bridles, saddles and stirrups in one; archery requisites such as bows, strings, quivers and arrows in another; leather armour corselets and other protective gear in a third.
Finally there is a fourth enclosure with walls of great thickness 25 feet high and topped with pure white battlements. Its walls are each a mile long containing six gates and it also has eight buildings devoted to the royal wardrobe!