37. Scholem, Sabbatai Sevi, pp. 374–5; Freely, Lost Messiah, p. 84.
38. Letter to England, cited by Scholem, Sabbatai Sevi, p. 383.
39. Scholem, Sabbatai Sevi, p. 101.
40. F. Yates, The Rosicrucian Enlightenment (London, 1972).
41. Freely, Lost Messiah, p. 93.
42. Ibid., pp. 133–4.
43. Scholem, Sabbatai Sevi, pp. 673–86.
44. Haim Abulafia, ibid., p. 359.
45. M. Greene, A Shared World: Christians and Muslims in the Early Modern Mediterranean (Princeton, NJ, 2000), pp. 62–7, 110–19.
46. Ibid., p. 17.
47. Ibid., p. 14; R. C. Anderson, Naval Wars in the Levant 1559–1853 (Liverpool, 1951), pp. 121–2.
48. Anderson, Naval Wars in the Levant, pp. 122–5.
49. Ibid., pp. 148–67.
50. Ibid., pp. 181–4; Greene, Shared World, pp. 18, 56.
51. Greene, Shared World, p. 121.
52. Ibid., pp. 122–40, 141–54; Greene, ‘Beyond northern invasions’.
53. Greene, Shared World, p. 155.
54. Ibid., pp. 175–81.
55. J. Dakhlia, Lingua franca: histoire d’une langue métisse en Méditerranée (Arles, 2008).
56. J. Wansborough, Lingua Franca in the Mediterranean (Richmond, Surrey, 1996).
57. H. and R. Kahane and A. Tietze, The Lingua Franca in the Levant: Turkish Nautical Terms of Italian and Greek Origin (Urbana, IL, 1958).
58. G. Cifoletti, La lingua franca mediterranea (Quaderni patavini di linguistica, monografie, no. 5, Padua, 1989), p. 74; Dictionnaire de la langue franque ou petit mauresque (Marseilles, 1830), p. 6, repr. in Cifoletti, Lingua franca, pp. 72–84.
59. R. Davis, Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800 (Basingstoke, 2003), pp. 25, 57, 114–15; A. Tinniswood, Pirates of Barbary: Corsairs, Conquests and Captivity in the Seventeenth-century Mediterranean (London, 2010), pp. 58–61; Cifoletti, Lingua franca, p. 108.
7. Encouragement to Others, 1650–1780
1. R. C. Anderson, Naval Wars in the Levant 1559–1853 (Liverpool, 1951), pp. 194–211, 236, 264–70.
2. G. Hills, Rock of Contention: a History of Gibraltar (London, 1974), pp. 142–6.
3. E. Routh, Tangier: England’s Lost Atlantic Outpost 1661–1684 (London, 1912), p. 10; A. Tinniswood, Pirates of Barbary: Corsairs, Conquests and Captivity in the Seventeenth-century Mediterranean (London, 2010), p. 204.
4. Routh, Tangier, p. 27.
5. S. Pepys, The Tangier Papers of Samuel Pepys, ed. E. Chappell (Navy Records Society, vol. 73, London, 1935), p. 88; A. Smithers, The Tangier Campaign: the Birth of the British Army (Stroud, 2003), pp. 31–2.
6. Routh, Tangier, pp. 21, 28.
7. Cited in ibid., pp. 23–4; Bromley in J. Baltharpe, The Straights Voyage or St David’s Poem, ed. J. S. Bromley (Luttrell Society, Oxford, 1959), pp. xxvii–viii.
8. Routh, Tangier, pp. 66–9; Smithers, Tangier Campaign, pp. 49–53.
9. Pepys, Tangier Papers, p. 97; Routh, Tangier, pp. 272–6.
10. Pepys, Tangier Papers, p. 41.
11. Tinniswood, Pirates of Barbary, pp. 211–15.
12. Routh, Tangier, p. 81; also Sir Henry Sheres’s opinion in Tinniswood, Pirates of Barbary, p. 205.
13. Routh, Tangier, pp. 82–6.
14. Pepys, Tangier Papers, p. 77; Hills, Rock of Contention, p. 150; Routh, Tangier, pp. 242–4.
15. Pepys, Tangier Papers, p. 65; Routh, Tangier, pp. 247–66; also plate facing p. 266; Smithers, Tangier Campaign, pp. 142–9; Tinniswood, Pirates of Barbary, pp. 242–53.
16. Earl of Portland, cited by Hills, Rock of Contention, pp. 157–8; M. Alexander, Gibraltar: Conquered by No Enemy (Stroud, 2008), p. 45.
17. Hills, Rock of Contention, pp. 158–9.
18. S. Conn, Gibraltar in British Diplomacy in the Eighteenth Century (New Haven, CT, 1942), p. 5.
19. Hills, Rock of Contention, pp. 167–9, and appendix A, pp. 475–7; M. Harvey, Gibraltar: a History (2nd edn, Staplehurst, Kent, 2000), p. 65; S. Constantine, Community and Identity: the Making of Modern Gibraltar since 1704 (Manchester, 2009), p. 12.
20. Cited in Hills, Rock of Contention, p. 174 from council minutes.
21. Ibid., pp. 176–7.
22. Ibid., pp. 183, 195.
23. Cited in Conn, Gibraltar in British Diplomacy, p. 6.
24. Passages cited in Hills, Rock of Contention, pp. 204–5.
25. Ibid., p. 219.
26. Utrecht clauses, ibid., pp. 222–3; Conn, Gibraltar in British Diplomacy, pp. 18–22, 25–6.
27. Constantine, Community and Identity, pp. 14–34.
28. Baltharpe, Straights Voyage, pp. xxv, 61.
29. D. Gregory, Minorca, the Illusory Prize: a history of the British Occupations of Minorca between 1708 and 1802 (Rutherford, NJ, 1990), pp. 206–7; Conn, Gibraltar in British Diplomacy, pp. 28–111; M. Mata, Conquests and Reconquests of Menorca (Barcelona, 1984), pp. 129–60.
30. Gregory, Minorca, p. 26.
31. J. Sloss, A Small Affair: the French Occupation of Menorca during the Seven Years War (Tetbury, 2000), pp. 40–43; Gregory, Minorca, pp. 35–6, 144–6.
32. Cited by Gregory, Minorca, p. 26.
33. Mata, Conquests and Reconquests, p. 160.
34. Ibid., p. 163; J. Sloss, Richard Kane Governor of Minorca (Tetbury, 1995), p. 224; Gregory, Minorca, pp. 59–60, 151.
35. Gregory, Minorca, pp. 90, 156; Mata, Conquests and Reconquests, p. 164.
36. E. Frangakis-Syrett, The Commerce of Smyrna in the Eighteenth Century, 1700–1820 (Athens, 1992), pp. 119–21, 131; Gregory, Minorca, pp. 144, 149–55, and p. 247, n. 1, summarizing figures from R. Davis, The Rise of the English Shipping Industry in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries (Newton Abbot, 1962), p. 256; R. Davis, ‘English foreign trade’, in W. Minchinton (ed.), The Growth of English Overseas Trade in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries (London, 1969), p. 108 and table opposite p. 118; Gregory, Minorca, pp. 144, 149–55.
37. Sloss, Richard Kane, p. 210; Gregory, Minorca, pp. 71, 119, 122, 132–4.
38. Gregory, Minorca, pp. 126–7; Mata, Conquests and Reconquests, p. 164.
39. Mata, Conquests and Reconquests, pp. 237–8.
40. Sloss, Small Affair, pp. 2–4.
41. Mr Consul Banks, in H. W. Richmond (ed.), Papers Relating to the Loss of Minorca in 1756 (Navy Records Society, London, 1913), vol. 42, p. 34, and see also pp. 38, 50; B. Tunstall, Admiral Byng and the Loss of Minorca (London, 1928), pp. 22, 32, 39; D. Pope, At 12 Mr Byng Was Shot (London, 1962), pp. 36, 38 and p. 315, n. 6.
42. Pope, At 12 Mr Byng Was Shot, pp. 59–60, 65.
43. Tunstall, Admiral Byng, p. 103.
44. Sloss, Small Affair, pp. 7–16.
45. Text in Pope, At 12 Mr Byng Was Shot, appendix v, p. 311; Tunstall, Admiral Byng, pp. 137–9.
46. Pope, At 12 Mr Byng Was Shot, pp. 294–302.
47. I. de Madariaga, Britain, Russia, and the Armed Neutrality of 1780: Sir James Harris’s Mission to St Petersburg during the American Revolution (New Haven, CT and London, 1962), pp. 239–63, 295–300.
8. The View through the Russian Prism, 1760–1805
1. R. C. Anderson, Naval Wars in the Levant 1559–1853 (Liverpool, 1951), pp. 237–42, 270–76.
2. M. S. Anderson, ‘Great Britain and the Russian fleet, 1769–70’, Slavonic and East European Review, vol. 31 (1952), pp. 148–50, 152, 154.
3. N. Saul, Russia and the Mediterranean 1797–1807 (Chicago, IL, 1970), p. 4.
4. Anderson, ‘Great Britain and the Russian fleet’, p. 150; M. S. Anderson, ‘Great Britain and the Russo-Turkish war of 1768–74’, English Historical Review, vol. 69 (1954), pp. 39–58.
5. Anderson, ‘Great Britain and the Russian fleet’, pp. 153, 155–6, 158–9; Anderson, ‘Great Britain and the Russo-Turkish war’, pp. 44–5; Anderson, Naval Wars in the Levant, p. 281; D. Gregory, Minorca, the Illusory Prize: a History of
the British Occupations of Minorca between 1708 and 1802 (Rutherford, NJ, 1990), p. 141.
6. Anderson, Naval Wars in the Levant, pp. 286–91; E. V. Tarlé, Chesmenskii boy i pervaya russkaya ekspeditsiya v Arkhipelag 1769–1774 (Moscow, 1945), p. 105, n. 1; F. S. Krinitsyn, Chesmenskoye srazhenye (Moscow, 1962), pp. 32–4 (maps).
7. Anderson, ‘Great Britain and the Russo-Turkish war’, pp. 56–7.
8. Anderson, Naval Wars in the Levant, pp. 286–305.
9. Saul, Russia and the Mediterranean, pp. 7–8; Anderson, ‘Great Britain and the Russo-Turkish war’, p. 46.
10. S. Conn, Gibraltar in British Diplomacy in the Eighteenth Century (New Haven, CT, 1942), pp. 174–6, 189–98; T. H. McGuffie, The Siege of Gibraltar 1779–1783 (London, 1965); M. Alexander, Gibraltar: Conquered by No Enemy (Stroud, 2008), pp. 92–114.
11. I. de Madariaga, Britain, Russia and the Armed Neutrality of 1780: Sir James Harris’s Mission to St Petersburg during the American Revolution (New Haven, CT and London, 1962), pp. 240–44, 250–52, 258, 263, 298–9; Gregory, Minorca, pp. 187–99.
12. Cited by Saul, Russia and the Mediterranean, p. 12, from Annual Register of 1788, or a View of the History, Politics, and Literature for the Year 1788 (London, 1789), p. 59.
13. M. S. Anderson, ‘Russia in the Mediterranean, 1788–1791: a little-known chapter in the history of naval warfare and privateering’, Mariner’s Mirror, vol. 45 (1959), p. 26.
14. Ibid., pp. 27–31.
15. Saul, Russia and the Mediterranean, pp. 178–9.
16. Ibid., p. 27.
17. R. Cavaliero, The Last of the Crusaders: the Knights of St John and Malta in the Eighteenth Century (2nd edn, London, 2009), p. 103.
18. Ibid., pp. 144–9.
19. Ibid., pp. 181–201.
20. D. Gregory, Malta, Britain, and the European Powers, 1793–1815 (Cranbury, NJ, 1996), p. 105; Cavaliero, Last of the Crusaders, pp. 155, 158.
21. Cf. Saul, Russia and the Mediterranean, p. 35.
22. Gregory, Malta, Britain, p. 106; Saul, Russia and the Mediterranean, pp. 36–8.
23. M. Crook, Toulon in War and Revolution: from the Ancien Régime to the Restoration, 1750–1820 (Manchester, 1991), pp. 139–48; D. Gregory, The Ungovernable Rock: a History of the Anglo-Corsican Kingdom and its Role in Britain’s Mediterranean Strategy during the Revolutionary War (1793–1797) (Madison, WI, 1985), pp. 52–7; N. A. M. Rodger, The Command of the Ocean: a Naval History of Britain 1649–1815 (London, 2004), p. 429.
24. P. Mackesy, The War in the Mediterranean 1803–1810 (London, 1957), pp. 5, 7, 13.
25. Gregory, Ungovernable Rock, pp. 30–31, 47.
26. D. Carrington, Granite Island: a Portrait of Corsica (London, 1971).
27. Gregory, Ungovernable Rock, pp. 63, 73, 80–84.
28. Huntingdon Record Office, Sismey papers 3658/E4 (e).
29. Cited by Saul, Russia and the Mediterranean, p. 39, from J. E. Howard, Letters and Documents of Napoleon, vol. 1, The Rise to Power (London, 1961), p. 191.
30. Cavaliero, Last of the Crusaders, pp. 9–101.
31. Saul, Russia and the Mediterranean, pp. 39–40.
32. Cavaliero, Last of the Crusaders, pp. 223, 226.
33. Ibid., pp. 223–4; Saul, Russia and the Mediterranean, pp. 41–2.
34. Cf. Saul, Russia and the Mediterranean, p. 45.
35. Cavaliero, Last of the Crusaders, pp. 236, 238, 242.
36. Count Philip Cobenzl, cited ibid., p. 238; Gregory, Malta, Britain, p. 108.
37. R. Knight, The Pursuit of Victory: the Life and Achievement of Horatio Nelson (London, 2005), pp. 288–303; P. Padfield, Maritime Power and the Struggle for Freedom: Naval Campaigns That Shaped the Modern World 1788–1851 (London, 2003), pp. 147–71.
38. Saul, Russia and the Mediterranean, p. 65.
39. Knight, Pursuit of Victory, p. 675.
40. Saul, Russia and the Mediterranean, pp. 79, 87; Gregory, Malta, Britain, p. 109.
41. Saul, Russia and the Mediterranean, p. 99.
42. Cited ibid., pp. 124–9.
43. Ibid., p. 128.
44. Gregory, Malta, Britain, pp. 113, 115.
45. Saul, Russia and the Mediterranean, pp. 145–6.
46. Knight, Pursuit of Victory, pp. 362–84.
47. Saul, Russia and the Mediterranean, pp. 162–3; Gregory, Malta, Britain, pp. 116–40.
48. Cited by Saul, Russia and the Mediterranean, p. 185.
49. Ibid., p. 186.
50. Knight, Pursuit of Victory, pp. 437–50.
51. Ibid., pp. 501–24.
52. Saul, Russia and the Mediterranean, p. 198.
53. R. Harris, Dubrovnik: a History (London, 2003), pp. 397–401.
54. Anderson, Naval Wars in the Levant, pp. 431–7; Saul, Russia and the Mediterranean, pp. 198–206.
55. Harris, Dubrovnik, p. 397.
56. Anderson, Naval Wars in the Levant, pp. 449–53.
57. Anderson, Naval Wars in the Levant, pp. 457–8; Mackesy, War in the Mediterranean, p. 211; Saul, Russia and the Mediterranean, pp. 216–20, 222; L. Sondhaus, The Habsburg Empire and the Sea: Austrian Naval Policy 1797–1866 (West Lafayette, IN, 1989), p. 19.
9. Deys, Beys and Bashaws, 1800–1830
1. P. Mackesy, The War in the Mediterranean 1803–1810 (London, 1957), pp. 121–53.
2. In 1803: ibid., p. 21.
3. Ibid., pp. 98, 319.
4. Ibid., appendices 1 and 5, pp. 398, 403–4.
5. R. Knight, The Pursuit of Victory: the Life and Achievement of Horatio Nelson (London, 2005), p. 555.
6. Mackesy, War in the Mediterranean, p. 229.
7. Ibid., pp. 352–5; L. Sondhaus, The Habsburg Empire and the Sea: Austrian Naval Policy 1797–1866 (West Lafayette, IN, 1989), p. 42; M. Pratt, Britain’s Greek Empire: Reflections on the History of the Ionian Islands from the Fall of Byzantium (London, 1978).
8. D. Gregory, Sicily, the Insecure Base: a History of the British Occupation of Sicily, 1806–1815 (Madison, WI, 1988); Knight, Pursuit of Victory, pp. 307–27.
9. Mackesy, War in the Mediterranean, p. 375.
10. F. Tabak, The Waning of the Mediterranean 1550–1870: a Geohistorical Approach (Baltimore, MD, 2008), pp. 221–5; D. Mack Smith, A History of Sicily, vol. 3, Modern Sicily after 1713 (London, 1968), pp. 272–4; Gregory, Sicily, p. 37.
11. L. Wright and J. Macleod, The First Americans in North Africa: William Eaton’s Struggle for a Vigorous Policy against the Barbary Pirates, 1799–1805 (Princeton, NJ, 1945), pp. 66–8; F. Lambert, The Barbary Wars: American Independence in the Atlantic World (New York, 2005), p. 91; R. C. Anderson, Naval Wars in the Levant 1559–1853 (Liverpool, 1951), pp. 394–5.
12. Lambert, Barbary Wars, p. 90.
13. Testimony of Elijah Shaw in M. Kitzen, Tripoli and the United States at War: a History of American Relations with the Barbary States, 1785–1805 (Jefferson, NC, 1993), pp. 97–101.
14. J. London, Victory in Tripoli: How America’s War with the Barbary Pirates Established the U.S. Navy and Shaped a Nation (Hoboken, NJ, 2005).
15. J. Wheelan, Jefferson’s War: America’s First War on Terror 1801–1805 (New York, 2003), pp. xxiii, 1, 7, etc.; Lambert, Barbary Wars, pp. 106–7.
16. F. Leiner, The End of Barbary Terror: America’s 1815 War against the Pirates of North Africa (New York, 2006), p. ix.
17. Lambert, Barbary Wars, p. 118.
18. Ibid., p. 8; also pp. 109–13.
19. Ibid., pp. 9, 11, 23.
20. Ibid., pp. 47, 50, 76.
21. Wright and Macleod, First Americans, p. 48.
22. Kitzen, Tripoli, pp. 49–50.
23. Cited in extenso in R. Zacks, The Pirate Coast: Thomas Jefferson, the First Marines, and the Secret Mission of 1805 (New York, 2005), pp. 189–90.
24. Leiner, End of Barbary Terror, p. 19.
25. Wright and Macleod, First Americans, pp. 54–5; Lambert, Barbary Wars, p. 31.
26. Lambert, Barbary Wars, pp. 30, 34.
27. Kitzen
, Tripoli, pp. 19–20; Lambert, Barbary Wars, p. 87.
28. Lambert, Barbary Wars, pp. 100–103; Kitzen, Tripoli, pp. 40–42; Wheelan, Jefferson’s War, pp. 96–7; Anderson, Naval Wars in the Levant, p. 396.
29. Lambert, Barbary Wars, p. 101; Anderson, Naval Wars in the Levant, pp. 397, 403.
30. Lambert, Barbary Wars, pp. 133–4; Anderson, Naval Wars in the Levant, p. 407.
31. Lambert, Barbary Wars, pp. 140–44; Kitzen, Tripoli, pp. 93–113.
32. Lambert, Barbary Wars, pp. 146–8; Kitzen, Tripoli, p. 122, and plates on pp. 123–4.
33. Lambert, Barbary Wars, pp. 130–54; Kitzen, Tripoli, pp. 135–76.
34. Leiner, End of Barbary Terror, p. 23.
35. Ibid., pp. 26–36.
36. Navy orders to Decatur: ibid., appendix i, pp. 183–6.
37. Lambert, Barbary Wars, pp. 189–93; Leiner, End of Barbary Terror, pp. 87–122, and appendix iii, pp. 189–94 for the Algiers treaty.
38. Leiner, End of Barbary Terror, appendix iii, pp. 189–94 (p. 189 for article 2); Lambert, Barbary Wars, p. 195.
39. G. Contis, ‘Environment, health and disease in Alexandria and the Nile Delta’, in A. Hirst and M. Silk (eds.), Alexandria, Real and Imagined (2nd edn, Cairo, 2006), p. 229.
40. O. Abdel-Aziz Omar, ‘Alexandria during the period of the Ottoman conquest to the end of the reign of Ismail’, in The History and Civilisation of Alexandria across the Ages (2nd edn, Alexandria, 2000), pp. 154, 158–9.
41. Anderson, Naval Wars in the Levant, pp. 483, 486–7.
42. Ibid., p. 508; Sondhaus, Habsburg Empire and the Sea, p. 63.
43. Anderson, Naval Wars in the Levant, pp. 492–3.
44. Ibid., pp. 523–36.
45. K. Fahmy, ‘Towards a social history of modern Alexandria’, in Hirst and Silk (eds.), Alexandria, Real and Imagined, pp. 283–4.
46. J. Abun-Nasr, A History of the Maghrib in the Islamic Period (Cambridge, 1987), p. 249.
47. Ibid., pp. 164, 166, 251, 254.
48. Ibid., p. 261.
PART FIVE
THE FIFTH MEDITERRANEAN, 1830–2010
1. Ever the Twain Shall Meet, 1830–1900
1. Cf. E. Said’s tendentious Orientalism (London, 1978).
2. Z. Karabell, Parting the Desert: the Creation of the Suez Canal (London, 2003), pp. 147, 183.
The Great Sea: A Human History of the Mediterranean Page 86