The varied characteristics of traditional cultures—such as distinctive appearances, clothing styles, livelihood patterns, housing types, cuisines, and more—can individually or collectively be considered tourism resources (figure 7.2). These may be indigenous peoples, minority groups, or other populations that live outside of the wider society such as the Amish in parts of Pennsylvania, New York, and Ohio. At the same time, the characteristics of a modern society can be a resource, as international tourists seek to do things like experience a “typical” Irish pub or ride one of London’s double-decker buses. Likewise, aspects of a society’s popular fashion, musical culture, culinary styles (see box 7.1), and more can constitute tourism resources.
Figure 7.2. The Kuna are an indigenous tribe in Panama and Colombia. One element of their culture—their molas—can be considered a tourism resource. The people have become known for these brightly colored and intricately designed textiles that are used to make the women’s distinctive traditional clothes. (Source: Fred McGinnis)
Additionally, less tangible elements of a place’s culture can either contribute as a resource for tourism or constitute a barrier. For example, language is a basic element of culture. A common language, whether the native language or one that is widely spoken, between the sending and receiving countries or regions may be considered a resource for that particular destination. In contrast, the lack of a commonly spoken language can become a barrier. This, of course, is perceptual. For many tourists, the idea of not being able to communicate with people at the destination is a source of anxiety and stress; thus, they will be more likely to choose destinations where they feel confident they know the majority of people will be able to speak the same language.
The same can apply to religious beliefs or cultural value systems. Many societies, particularly those seeking to develop tourism, are open to and tolerant of cultural differences in physical appearance, patterns of dress, or codes of behavior. However, this is not always the case. Tourists are often requested to observe the norms of the society they visit, which may involve changes in the ways they dress (e.g., wearing more conservative clothing or covering one’s head) or the ways they act (e.g., refraining from holding hands with one’s partner or other public displays of affection). Many tourists are willing to respect these practices so that they may have the experience of that place and culture. However, others may be reluctant to visit a place where they feel they are restricted or concerned about reports of harsh punishments for those who, perhaps unintentionally, violate one of these social rules.
Urban Geography, Rural Geography, and Tourism
Urban geography and rural geography are distinct topical branches of geography that study specific geographic areas. Yet, these areas—and the studies of them—are not unrelated. Ideas about and definitions of urban and rural areas are often contingent upon each other. They may be negatively defined (i.e., the definition of one is predicated on not being the other) or simply defined in opposition with one another (i.e., the characteristic of one is the opposite for the other). For example, using the 2010 United States Census Bureau urban and rural classifications as an example, the basic criteria for an urban area is at least 2,500 people. Correspondingly, a rural area “encompasses all population, housing, and territory not included within an urban area.”2
Urban geography and rural geography are topical branches in human geography that have clear ties to population and economic geographies. In addition, these branches deal with themes that are shared by social, cultural, political, and even environmental geographies. Urban geography may be defined as the study of the relationships between or patterns within cities and metropolitan areas. Urban geography is considered to be a relatively recent development in the field. Over time, trends in the study of geography have reflected the reality of human settlement and livelihood patterns. Consequently, as long as the majority of the world’s population lived in rural areas and was dependent on environmental resources for their survival, greater attention was given to these issues. Although the earliest cities emerged some six thousand years ago, it has been only recently that the majority of the world’s population has lived in cities. Reflecting these changing spatial patterns, urban geography began to emerge as a topic of inquiry in the mid-twentieth century and become a recognized topical branch in the subsequent decades.
Box 7.1. In-Depth: Food as a Cultural Resource in Italian Tourism
Italy ranks as the world’s fifth-largest tourism destination both in terms of international tourist arrivals, numbering at 43.6 million in 2010, and tourism receipts, accounting for US$38.8 billion.1 Along with history, art, and architecture, food is one of the first things that we think about for Italy. In fact, there is no other destination more closely associated with its cuisine than Italy. Other destinations may have a reputation for good food or a wide variety of dining experiences to choose from, but none bring to mind a specific type or style of food so clearly as the pizzas and pastas of Italy. Thus, while food may not be the primary reason these tourists visit Italy, it is undoubtedly part of their expectations for the experience.
As the country spans a long geographic territory with different landforms and climate regions, differences in cooking styles have naturally evolved based on readily available ingredients. For example, northern Italian cooking uses more beef and butter, while southern Italian styles incorporate more seafood and olive oil. In between the two, and blending traditions from both, Tuscan cuisine is often viewed as quintessentially Italian, with pastas, light sauces, and fresh vegetables. Regardless of these regional variations, however, food and wine make up a distinct part of Italian culture. It is part of the cultural heritage that is passed down from generation to generation, as parents teach their children to make the recipes they learned from their parents and grandparents. It is the central point around which life revolves and the basis for family gatherings as people come together to eat, drink, linger, and socialize.
At the same time, food and wine—with everything from production regions to places of consumption—makes up an important part of the cultural landscape. Vast vineyards and olive groves characterize the countryside, such as Tuscany’s Chianti area. Located between Florence and Siena, Chianti is the largest and most popular area in this premier wine-producing region. Small family gardens can easily be seen throughout the small towns and villages. Fresh produce and seafood markets are an integral part of the cities, from the large, well-known ones like Florence’s San Lorenzo Mercato Centrale to the small markets that serve the local neighborhoods. And, of course, countless restaurants and cafés can be found in every town and on every city street. They are a distinct part of the character in these places, and they represent a piece of Italian life.
The majority of these restaurants are family owned and operated, and they serve as a place for family members and people from the neighborhood to get together. At the same time, they are generally small in size but open, possibly even spilling out onto the sidewalk, with an inviting atmosphere for tourists. While they often have much the same to offer in terms of food, they give tourists the opportunity to sample classic cuisine for the region. With their ready access to fresh produce from gardens and markets, even simple dishes can seem extraordinary, especially to those tourists for whom freshness is a distinctly foreign concept. The social space of the restaurant and the slow pace of the meal create a sense of an intimate and unique cultural experience. As such, tourists to Italy often find that some of their most memorable experiences revolve around food.
Discussion topic: Identify and discuss another example of how food can serve as a cultural resource for tourism.
Tourism on the web: Ministro per gli Affari Regonali, il Turismo en lo Sport, “Official Website for Tourism in Italy,” at http://www.italia.it/en/home.html; Regione Toscana, “Tourism and Holidays in Tuscany: Official Tourism Site of Tuscany,” at http://www.turismo.intoscana.it/intoscana2/export/TurismoRTen/
Figure 7.3. From the production regions in the countr
yside to the innumerable restaurants around every corner in cities such as this one, food is a vital cultural resource for tourism in Italy. (Source: Barret Bailey)
Note
1. United Nations World Tourism Organization, UNWTO Tourism Highlights 2011 Edition (Madrid: World Tourism Organization, 2011), accessed February 7, 2012, http://mkt.unwto.org/sites/all/files/docpdf/unwtohighlights11enlr_1.pdf, 6.
Correspondingly, issues of tourism in urban areas received increasing attention in geographic research, as well as in other fields, starting in the late 1980s. While this too reflected the increasing importance of cities in the modern world, it also was an indication of the rising significance of urban tourism. Although it could be argued that urban tourism dates back to the Grand Tour in classical cities such as Paris, Vienna, Venice, and Rome, the growth in heritage tourism over the past several decades generated a new demand for these types of urban attractions. At the same time, cities began to see the value in revitalizing rundown urban areas to create an attractive environment for tourism.
Rural geography may be defined as the study of contemporary rural landscapes, societies, and economies. The rural had long been a focus of much human geography research, as the majority of people lived in these areas and depended on rural livelihoods. In particular, rural areas were an important site for research in the regional tradition of geography. Because of this association with primarily descriptive studies, rural geography fell out of favor in the field. As with regional geography, however, a subset of geographers argued for the development of a more critical approach to regional geography that would go beyond describing rural patterns to try to explain the changing nature of rural areas. These studies have taken various approaches, from cultural (e.g., to understand the concept of rural that has been romanticized as idyllic) to economic (e.g., to understand changing patterns of rural production and consumption) and social (e.g., to understand serious issues such as rural poverty).
Although rural geography continues to be under-recognized as a distinct topical branch in the field, these studies have clear implications for the geography of tourism. Rural tourism also has a long history. The pastoral ideal was popularized in art and literature based on beautiful rural settings and romanticized country life. In fact, through the eighteenth century, cultivated landscape scenery was viewed as more attractive than scenes of wild nature. Interest in experiences of the rural gained even more momentum with the Romantic Movement (see chapter 4), which was primarily a response to the tremendous rise in both industrialization and urbanization. Today, tourism is a vital component in the economic changes that have been taking place in rural areas around the world.
Urban/rural and city/country can be powerful concepts, and despite a general lack of clear definitions, we often have distinct ideas about them. Whether these ideas are positive or negative, vivid or vague, depends on our individual backgrounds and preferences. However, these ideas will nonetheless play an extraordinarily important role in our choice of destinations. In some cases, tourists will assess the generalized resources for tourism in urban or rural areas and rule out entire categories of destinations based on that alone. For example, the person who considers only the stereotypes of major cities (e.g., crowds, noise, smog, crime, unfriendly people, etc.) will avoid many popular destinations around the world. In other cases, tourists may decide to visit a destination solely on the basis of that place’s most well-known resources. The person who has always wanted to see the Colosseum may not consider any destinations other than Rome once he or she has the opportunity to travel to Europe. Of course, it is important that tourists consider the resources and barriers associated with specific destinations in either of these areas to make the most informed decision.
Urban Geography and Tourism
Urban geography’s focus on the spatial patterns of cities has much to contribute to the geography of tourism. For example, we can consider the extent and nature of a city’s connections. While these connections are generally not created for the purpose of tourism, they facilitate it nonetheless. Given the corresponding high level of accessibility, cities often serve as an entry point—if not the main attraction—for tourism across the regional, national, and international scales. Likewise, we can consider the spatial organization of a city. Borrowing from the central business district (CBD) concept, the central tourism district (CTD) refers to the spatial concentration of tourism facilities—from attractions to accommodations—within an urban area. This not only helps us understand the nature of tourism at such destinations but also provides the framework for understanding the potential effects of tourism (see part III).
The urban tourism product is based on a wide range of resources. In fact, one of the strengths of this product is the tremendous extent of urban resources that can be made into various categories of attractions (human—not originally intended for tourism; human—intended for tourism; and special events). Thus, urban tourism overlaps with many other products (e.g., cultural, heritage, VFR, event, etc.), and it draws from a number of different tourist markets (e.g., leisure tourists, business tourists, etc.).
Many attractions are derived from the history of cities around the world, from the ancient (e.g., the Acropolis in Athens, Greece, used as a fortress from the second millennium BCE, with the present temples dating back to the fifth century BCE, now a UNESCO World Heritage Site and major tourism attraction) to the more modern (e.g., Robben Island, offshore from Cape Town, South Africa, used as a prison until the mid-1990s with prisoners such as Nelson Mandela, now a UNESCO World Heritage Site and museum). Indeed, these attractions have become so vital that in many cases a city’s “old town” or historic district is also the CTD. The spatial concentration of attractions prompts the development of other tourist facilities and services to meet the needs of this ready-made market. Likewise, markets or bazaars were key places for residents to obtain needed products but now serve as an attraction for tourists (e.g., Seattle’s Pike Place fish market) and a place to buy souvenirs (e.g., the straw market in Nassau, the Bahamas). Ethnic neighborhoods once served a distinct purpose for immigrants; today, they are highlighted in tourism as part of the city’s unique and colorful character (e.g., Miami’s Little Havana).
At the same time, cities all over the world have also recognized the potential to create new attractions for tourism from existing resources. In some cases, this involves a physical redevelopment of the urban infrastructure. Tourism has frequently been seen as an important vehicle for urban revitalization, such as the redevelopment of a harbor or former industrial site into a fashionable shopping and/or entertainment district (e.g., Baltimore’s Inner Harbor). In other cases, this involves creating new ways of looking at the urban infrastructure. For example, Rio de Janeiro has been at the forefront of slum tourism, an offshoot of the urban tourism product that involves tours of the city’s infamous favelas.
Cities also hold countless special events, from neighborhood festivals to hallmark events like the Olympics or the FIFA World Cup, all of which constitute a tourism attraction. In particular, the hallmark events are extraordinarily important, as can be seen by the intense competition between major world cities to be named host sites. These events are significant in generating a vast number of tourist visits when they occur, but they are also significant in raising international awareness of and interest in the destination.
Urban tourism destinations depend heavily on their reputations, both nationally and internationally. A widespread reputation is a distinctly positive factor, as it creates a demand for the experience of that specific destination. However, based on this reputation alone, cities may suffer from the perception that they have a finite number of resources to offer. Every major city has certain attractions that are well known; tourists to these destinations will be sure to see or experience them. In fact, it may be considered a “crime” to visit a city without seeing them—whether it is the Alamo in San Antonio, Texas, or the Little Mermaid statue in Copenhagen, Denmark. However, these types of d
estinations are prone to one-time visits, where tourists feel that they’ve “been there, done that” and are ready to experience the main attractions in other cities. Thus, a destination may have to continually work to create new attractions, revitalize existing ones, or promote lesser-known and alternative attractions. For example, the Amsterdam Tourist Board argues, “Took the picture, got the T-shirt? For all those visitors who’ve seen Amsterdam’s beautiful canals, visited the red light district, pioneered the Jordaan and gotten the hang of the city’s non-stop nightlife . . . here’s news for you: Amsterdam is bigger than you think! There’s still plenty to see, do and experience.”3
The principal barriers to urban tourism are typically perceptual, based on stereotypes of major cities, although there may be a real basis behind this. For example, tourists may feel that pollution, such as smog and litter, render urban destinations unattractive. They may be put off by having to experience high-profile destinations with hundreds, if not thousands, of other tourists (figure 7.4). Tourists may also be concerned by reports of a local population that is hostile to foreign tourists or by high crime rates. While tourists are more likely to be affected by petty crime in tourist areas—such as pickpocketing or scams—than violent crimes, it can be a deterrent nonetheless.
An Introduction to the Geography of Tourism Page 21