216 Ibid., 132-33.
217 James M. McPherson, For Cause and Comrades: Why Men Fought in the Civil War (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 162.
218 James M. McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era (New York: Ballantine Books, 1989), 835.
219 Ibid.
220 Ibid., 836; Berlin et al., eds., Free at Last, 164-65.
221 McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 836-37; McPherson, For Cause and Comrades, 171; Robert F. Durden, The Gray and the Black: The Confederate Debate on Emancipation (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1972), 289.
222 Rollins, “Black Southerners in Gray,” 26-27.
223 Blackett, ed., Thomas Morris Chester, 248.
224 Ibid., 248-49; Harding, There Is a River, 253-54; W. E. B. DuBois, Black Reconstruction: An Essay toward a History of the Part Which Black Folk Played in the Attempt to Reconstruct Democracy in America, 1860-1880 (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1935), 119-20.
225 Redkey, ed., A Grand Army of Black Men, 217.
226 Lanning, The African-American Soldier, 40.
227 Foner, Blacks and the Military, 51.
228 James Mellon, ed., Bullwhip Days: The Slaves Remember, An Oral History (New York: Avon Books, 1988), 339.
CHAPTER THREE
1 George P. Rawick, ed., The American Slave: A Composite Autobiography (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1977), Vol. 6, Mississippi Narratives, Part 1, 220.
2 Ibid., Vol. 9, Mississippi Narratives, Part 4, 1483.
3 Ibid., Vol. 3, Texas Narratives, Part 2, 551.
4 Peter Bardaglio, “The Children of Jubilee: African American Childhood in Wartime,” in Catherine Clinton and Nina Silber, eds., Divided Houses: Gender and the Civil War (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 221.
5 Walter J. Fraser Jr., Charleston! Charleston! The History of a Southern City (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1989), 259.
6 Harvey Wish, “Slave Disloyalty under the Confederacy,” Journal of Negro History 23, no. 4 (October 1938): 443; Vincent Harding, There Is a River: The Black Struggle for Freedom in America (New York: Harcourt Brace and Company, 1981), 229.
7 Wish, “Slave Disloyalty under the Confederacy,” 443.
8 William F. Messner, “Black Violence and White Response: Louisiana, 1862,” Journal of Southern History 41, no. 1 (February 1975): 21.
9 Ibid.
10 Ibid.
11 Wish, “Slave Disloyalty under the Confederacy,” 443-44.
12 Messner, “Black Violence and White Response,” 22-23.
13 Wish, “Slave Disloyalty under the Confederacy,” 444.
14 Rawick, ed., The American Slave, Vol. 10, Texas Narratives, Part 9, 4140.
15 Ibid., Vol. 12, Oklahoma Narratives, 69.
16 B. A. Botkin, ed., Lay My Burden Down: A Folk History of Slavery (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1945), 233.
17 Leon F. Litwack, Been in the Storm So Long: The Aftermath of Slavery (New York: Vintage Books, 1979), 181.
18 Ibid.
19 Joel Williamson, After Slavery: The Negro in South Carolina during Reconstruction, 1861-1877 (Hanover, NH, and London: University Press of New England, 1990), 33-34.
20 Ibid., 34.
21 Gary B. Nash, The American People: Creating a Nation and a Society, 2 vols. (New York: Harper and Row, 1990), 1:543.
22 Ibid.
23 C. Vann Woodward, ed., After the War: A Tour of the Southern States, 1865-1866 (By Whitelaw Reid) (New York: Harper and Row, 1965), 389.
24 Paul S. Boyer, The Enduring Vision: A History of the American People, 2 vols. (Lexington, MA: D. C. Heath and Company, 1993), 1:515.
25 Rawick, ed., The American Slave, Vol. 9, Mississippi Narratives, Part 4, 1601.
26 Arnold H. Taylor, Travail and Triumph: Black Life and Culture in the South since the Civil War (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1976), 4.
27 James West Davidson, Nation of Nations: A Narrative History of the American Republic, 2 vols. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1990), 1:621, 624.
28 Ibid., 624; John Mack Faragher, Out of Many: A History of the American People, 2 vols. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1994), 1:523.
29 James Mellon, ed., Bullwhip Days: The Slaves Remember, An Oral History (New York: Avon Books, 1988), 349-50.
30 Ibid., 347-48.
31 Williamson, After Slavery, 37.
32 Boyer, The Enduring Vision, 1:531.
33 Nash, The American People, 1:544.
34 Ibid., 545.
35 Ibid.
36 Jacqueline Jones, Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow: Black Women, Work, and the Family, From Slavery to the Present (New York: Vintage Books, 1985), 69.
37 Ibid., 69.
38 Ibid., 68.
39 Ibid., 69; Wilbert L. Jenkins, Seizing the New Day: African Americans in Post-Civil War Charleston (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1998), 42.
40 Jenkins, Seizing the New Day, 47, 49-50; Peter J. Rachleff, Black Labor in the South: Richmond, Virginia, 1865-1890 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1984), 14-15; Eric Foner, Reconstruction: America’s Unfinished Revolution, 1863-1877 (New York: Harper and Row, 1988), 81.
41 William A. Byrne, “The Burden and Heat of the Day: Slavery and Servitude in Savannah, 1733-1865” (Ph.D. diss., Florida State University, 1979), 337; John W. Blassingame, ”Before the Ghetto: The Making of the Black Community in Savannah, Georgia, 1865-1880,“ in Donald G. Nieman, ed., Church and Community among Black Southerners, 1865-1900 (New York and London: Garland, 1994), 464-65.
42 Jenkins, Seizing the New Day, 50.
43 Bert James Loewenberg and Ruth Bogin, eds., Black Women in Nineteenth-Century American Life: Their Words, Their Thoughts, Their Feelings (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1976), 70; Dorothy Sterling, ed., We Are Your Sisters: Black Women in the Nineteenth Century (New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 1984), 245, 248-51; Benjamin Quarles, The Negro in the Civil War (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1969), 128-29; Benjamin Quarles, Lincoln and the Negro (New York: Oxford University Press, 1962), 200-204.
44 Rawick, ed., The American Slave, Vol. 4, Texas Narratives, Part 3,1270.
45 Sterling, ed., We Are Your Sisters, 245-48, 403.
46 Ibid., 255.
47 Ibid., 405.
48 Ibid.
49 Penelope Majeske, ”Your Obedient Servant: The United States Army in Virginia during Reconstruction, 1865-1867” (Ph.D. diss., Wayne State University 1980), 34, 35, 40, 41, 42.
50 Jenkins, Seizing the New Day, 50-51.
51 Armstead L. Robinson, “Plans Dat Comed from God: Institution Building and the Emergence of Black Leadership in Reconstruction Memphis,” in Donald G. Nieman, ed., Church and Community among Black Southerners, 1865-1900 (New York and London: Garland, 1994), 93; John W. Blassingame, “Before the Ghetto,” in Nieman, ed., Church and Community, 1-2; Jonathan Woolard McLeod, “Black and White Workers: Atlanta during Reconstruction” (Ph.D. diss., University of California at Los Angeles, 1987), 13; Colin A. Palmer, Passageways: An Interpretive History of Black America, 2 vols. (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1998), 2:14; Boyer, The Enduring Vision, 1:531; Foner, Reconstruction, 81-82; Howard N. Rabinowitz, “A Comparative Perspective on Race Relations in Southern and Northern Cities,1860-1900, with Special Emphasis on Raleigh,” in Jeffrey J. Crow and Flora J. Hatley, eds., Black Americans in North Carolina and the South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1984), 138-39.
52 Palmer, Passageways, 2:14-15.
53 Mellon, ed., Bullwhip Days, 346, 376-77.
54 Byrne, “The Burden and Heat of the Day,” 340.
55 Ibid., 340-41.
56 Genevieve S. Gray, ed., Army Life in a Black Regiment (By Colonel Thomas W. Higginson) (New York: Grosset and Dunlap, 1970), 89-90.
57 Bernard E. Powers, Black Charlestonians: A Social History, 1822-1885 (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1994), 103.
58 Ibid., 104.
59 Ibid., 103.
60 Qua
rles, The Negro in the Civil War, 321, 325.
61 Byrne, “The Burden and Heat of the Day,” 335.
62 Ibid.
63 Jenkins, Seizing the New Day, 31.
64 Quarles, The Negro in the Civil War, 329.
65 Ibid. Author’s emphasis.
66 Ibid.
67 R. J. M. Blackett, ed., Thomas Morris Chester: Black Civil War Correspondent, His Dispatches from the Virginia Front (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1989), 289, 290.
68 Quarles, The Negro in the Civil War, 331; Hampton Institute, The Negro in Virginia: Compiled by Workers of the Writers’ Program of the Work Projects Administration in the State of Virginia (New York: Hastings House, 1940), 201.
69 Blackett, ed., Thomas Morris Chester, 290.
70 Edwin S. Redkey, ed., A Grand Army of Black Men: Letters from African-American Soldiers in the Union Army, 1861-1865 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 175.
71 Ibid., 175-76; Litwack, Been in the Storm So Long, 169; Blackett, ed., Thomas Morris Chester, 293.
72 Blackett, ed., Thomas Morris Chester, 294.
73 Rawick, ed., The American Slave, Vol. 1, Alabama Narratives, 139.
74 Blackett, ed., Thomas Morris Chester, 294-97; Quarles, The Negro in the Civil War, 333-35; Hampton Institute, The Negro in Virginia, 213.
75 Quarles, The Negro in the Civil War, 335; Blackett, ed., Thomas Morris Chester, 297.
76 Quarles, The Negro in the Civil War, 332; Litwack, Been in the Storm So Long, 169-70.
77 Blackett, ed., Thomas Morris Chester, 304-5.
78 Jenkins, Seizing the New Day, 36, 38, 39; Williamson, After Slavery, 47-49; Quarles, The Negro in the Civil War, 336-39.
79 Litwack, Been in the Storm So Long, 170.
80 Williamson, After Slavery, 49.
81 Ibid.
82 Litwack, Been in the Storm So Long, 177.
83 Redkey, ed., A Grand Army of Black Men, 187-88.
84 Rawick, ed., The American Slave, Vol. 8, Mississippi Narratives, Part 3, 1119.
85 Ibid., Vol. 12, Oklahoma Narratives, 195.
86 Ibid., Vol. 8, Mississippi Narratives, Part 3, 1065.
87 Ibid., Vol. 8, Mississippi Narratives, Part 3, 1223.
88 Rupert Sargent Holland, ed., Letters and Diary of Laura M. Towne: Written from the Sea Islands of South Carolina, 1862-1884 (Cambridge, MA: Riverside Press, 1912), 88; Quarles, Lincoln and the Negro, 244.
89 Rawick, ed., The American Slave, Vol. 8, Mississippi Narratives, Part 3, 1345.
90 Jenkins, Seizing the New Day, 40; Frank [Francis] A. Rollin, Life and Public Services of Martin A. Delany, Sub-Assistant Commissioner, Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands, and Late Major 104th U.S. Colored Troops (Boston: Lee and Shepard, 1883), 204-5; Quarles, Lincoln and the Negro, 245.
91 Quarles, The Negro in the Civil War, 342-43.
92 Quarles, Lincoln and the Negro, 244-245.
93 Elizabeth Hyde Botume, First Days amongst the Contrabands (New York: Arno Press and New York Times, 1968, reprint), 174-75.
94 Quarles, The Negro in the Civil War, 345.
95 Rawick, ed., The American Slave, Vol. 4, Texas Narratives, Part 3,1271.
96 Quarles, The Negro in the Civil War, 345.
97 Hampton Institute, The Negro in Virginia, 214.
98 Quarles, Lincoln and the Negro, 246.
99 John T. O‘Brien Jr., “From Bondage to Citizenship: The Richmond Black Community, 1865-1867” (Ph.D. diss., University of Rochester, 1974), 76.
100 Quarles, Lincoln and the Negro, 245-46.
101 Redkey, ed., A Grand Army of Black Men, 221-22.
102 Hampton Institute, The Negro in Virginia, 214.
103 Quarles, Lincoln and the Negro, 244.
104 Rachleff, Black Labor in the South, 39.
105 Ibid., 40.
106 Ibid.
107 Daniel F. Littlefield, The Cherokee Freedmen: From Emancipation to American Citizenship (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1978), 61.
108 Ibid., 61-63.
109 Foner, Reconstruction, 119.
110 Rawick, ed., The American Slave, Vol. 4, Texas Narratives, Part 3,1160.
111 Foner, Reconstruction, 121; Sidney Andrews, The South since the War: As Shown by Fourteen Weeks of Travel and Observation in Georgia and the Carolinas (Boston: Ticknor and Fields, 1866), 221.
112 Littlefield, The Cherokee Freedmen, 68.
113 Daniel F. Littlefield, The Chickasaw Freedmen: A People without a Country (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1980), 94-95.
114 Taken from Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.’s speech on December 11, 1961, before the Fourth Constitutional Convention of the AFL-CIO in Bal Harbour, Florida.
CHAPTER FOUR
1 Wilbert L. Jenkins, Seizing the New Day: African Americans in Post-Civil War Charleston (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1998), 47; Alan Brinkley, American History: A Survey, 8th rev. ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1991), 452-53; Paul S. Boyer, The Enduring Vision: A History of the American People, 2 vols. (Lexington, MA: D. C. Heath and Company, 1993), 1:515; Thomas A. Bailey, The American Pageant: A History of the Republic, 2 vols. (Lexington, MA: D. C. Heath and Company, 1991), 1:478-79.
2 Brinkley American History, 452-53.
3 Charles H. Wesley, Negro Labor in the United States, 1850-1925: A Study in American Economic History (New York: Vanguard Press, 1927), 147.
4 Ibid.
5 Eric Foner, Reconstruction: America’s Unfinished Revolution, 1863-1877 (New York: Harper and Row, 1988), 102.
6 Ruthe Winegarten, Black Texas Women: 150 Years of Trial and Triumph (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1995), 51.
7 William A. Byrne, “The Burden and Heat of the Day: Slavery and Servitude in Savannah, 1733-1865” (Ph.D. diss., Florida State University, 1979), 350.
8 Bailey, The American Pageant, 1:480-81.
9 John T. O’Brien Jr., ”From Bondage to Citizenship: The Richmond Black Community, 1865-1867” (Ph.D. diss., University of Rochester, 1974), 79.
10 Martin Abbott, The Freedmen’s Bureau in South Carolina, 1865-1872 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1967), 52.
11 C. Vann Woodward, ed., After the War: A Tour of the Southern States, 1865-1866 (By Whitelaw Reid) (New York: Harper and Row, 1965), 564.
12 Ibid., 59.
13 Ibid., 564.
14 Loren Schweninger, Black Property Owners in the South, 1790-1915 (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1990), 145.
15 Foner, Reconstruction, 104.
16 George P. Rawick, ed., The American Slave: A Composite Autobiography (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1977), Vol. 9, Mississippi Narratives, Part 4, 1649.
17 Ibid., Vol. 8, Mississippi Narratives, Part 3, 1035.
18 Ibid., Vol. 7, Mississippi Narratives, Part 2, 629.
19 Ibid., Vol. 10, Mississippi Narratives, Part 5, 1986.
20 Jacqueline Baldwin Walker, “Blacks in North Carolina during Reconstruction” (Ph.D. diss., Duke University, 1979), 64.
21 Elizabeth Hyde Botume, First Days amongst the Contrabands (Boston: Lee and Shepard, 1893), 170.
22 Donna J. Benson, “ ‘Before I Be a Slave’: A Social Analysis of the Black Struggle for Freedom in North Carolina, 1860-1865” (Ph.D. diss., Duke University, 1984), 171.
23 Byrne, “The Burden and Heat of the Day,” 365.
24 William L. Barney, The Passage of the Republic: An Interdisciplinary History of Nineteenth-Century America (Lexington, MA: D. C. Heath and Company, 1987), 250.
25 Gary B. Nash, The American People: Creating a Nation and a Society, 2 vols. (New York: Harper and Row, 1990), 1:544.
26 James A. Henretta, America’s History, 2 vols. (New York: Worth, 1997), 1:491.
27 Rawick, ed., The American Slave, Vol. 3, Texas Narratives, Part 2, 853.
28 Ibid., Vol. 3, Texas Narratives, Part 2, 877.
29 Jenkins, Seizing the New Day, 62.
30 Michael Fellman, “Lincoln and Sherman,” in Gabor S. Boritt
, ed., Lincoln’s Generals (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 149-50.
Climbing Up to Glory Page 33