105 Berlin and Rowland, eds., Families and Freedom, 231-33.
106 Ibid., 237.
107 Ibid.
108 King, Stolen Childhood, 152-53.
109 Scott, “The Battle over the Child,” 105-7.
110 Ira Berlin, Barbara J. Fields, Steven F. Miller, Joseph P. Reidy, and Leslie S. Rowland, eds., Free at Last: A Documentary History of Slavery, Freedom, and the Civil War (New York: New Press, 1992), 533-35.
111 Ibid., 535-36.
112 Berlin and Rowland, eds., Families and Freedom, 227-30.
113 Ibid., 230-31.
114 Rachleff, Black Labor in the South, 21.
115 Rawick, ed., The American ‘Slave, Vol. 2, Arkansas, Colorado, Minnesota, Missouri, Oregon, and Washington Narratives, 141.
116 Walter Hill, “A Sense of Belonging: Family Functions and Structure in Charleston, S.C., 1880-1910” (Paper prepared at Howard University 1984), 6-7.
117 Rawick, ed., The American Slave, Vol. 10, Mississippi Narratives, Part 5, 2385.
118 Walker, “Blacks in North Carolina,” 132.
119 Ibid., 133.
120 Abzug, “The Black Family, 33-34.”
121 Rawick, ed., The American Slave, Vol. 10, Mississippi Narratives, Part 5, 2234-2235.
122 Mary Beth Norton, A People and a Nation: A History of the United States, 2 vols. (Boston: Houghton-Mifflin Company, 1990), 2:456.
123 Jacqueline Jones, Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow: Black Women, Work, and the Family, from Slavery to the Present (New York: Vintage Books, 1985), 76-77.
124 Jones, Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow, 76.
125 Alan Brinkley, American History: A Survey, 8th rev. ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1991), 469.
126 Foner, Reconstruction, 86.
127 Noralee Frankel, Freedom’s Women: Black Women and Families in Civil War Era Mississippi (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1999), 74-75.
128 Foner, Reconstruction, 86.
129 Schwalm, A Hard Fight for We, 211-12.
130 Frankel, Freedom’s Women, 71, 76.
131 Davidson, Nation of Nations, 1:624.
132 Foner, Reconstruction, 86-87.
133 Ibid., 87.
134 Ibid.
135 Mellon, ed., Bullwhip Days, 225.
136 Rawick, ed., The American Slave, Vol. 9, Texas Narratives, Part 8, 3498.
137 Ibid., Vol. 5, Texas Narratives, Part 4, 1696.
138 Ibid., Vol. 5, Indiana and Ohio Narratives, 165.
139 Ibid., Vol. 5, Texas Narratives, Part 4, 1533.
140 Ibid., Vol. 8, Texas Narratives, Part 7, 3257.
141 Ibid., Vol. 7, Texas Narratives, Part 6, 2589.
142 Mellon, ed., Bullwhip Days, 225.
143 Herbert G. Gutman, The Black Family in Slavery and Freedom, 1750-1925 (New York: Pantheon Books, 1976), 230-56.
144 Rawick, ed., The American Slave, Vol. 7, Texas Narratives, Part 6, 2764.
145 Ibid., Vol. 8, Mississippi Narratives, Part 3, 1240.
146 Daniel F. Littlefield, Jr. Africans and Seminoles: From Removal to Emancipation (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1977), 193.
147 Woodward, ed., After the War, 147.
148 Norton, A People and a Nation, 2:456.
149 Ibid.
150 Joe A. Mobley, “In the Shadow of White Society: Princeville, A Black Town in North Carolina, 1865-1915,” in Donald G. Nieman, ed., Church and Community among Black Southerners, 1865-1900 (New York and London: Garland, 1994), 28-72; Joe A. Mobley, James City: A Black Community in North Carolina, 1863-1900 (Raleigh: North Carolina Division of Archives and History, 1981); James M. Smallwood, Time of Hope, Time of Despair: Black Texans during Reconstruction (Port Washington, NY: Kennikat Press, 1981), 118.
151 Dorothy Sterling, ed., We Are Your Sisters: Black Women in the Nineteenth Century (New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 1984), 339.
152 Ibid.
153 Ibid., 339-40.
154 Ibid., 339.
155 Ibid., 341.
156 Ibid.
157 Ibid., 340-41.
158 Ibid., 341-42.
159 Ibid., 342.
160 Ruthe Winegarten, Black Texas Women: 150 Years of Trial and Triumph (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1995), 57, 58.
161 Sterling, ed., We Are Your Sisters, 341, 342.
162 Winegarten, Black Texas Women, 58.
163 Ibid., 57.
164 Berlin and Rowland, eds., Families and Freedom, 182-84.
165 King, Stolen Childhood, 112.
166 Wilbert L. Jenkins, Seizing the New Day: African Americans in Post-Civil War Charleston (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1998), 107.
167 Ibid., 107-8.
168 Willard B. Gatewood, “The Remarkable Misses Rollin: Black Women in Reconstruction South Carolina,” South Carolina Historical Magazine, 92, no. 3 (July 1991): 179.
169 William E. Montgomery, Under Their Own Vine and Fig Tree: The African-American Church in the South, 1865-1900 (Baton Rouge and London: Louisiana State University Press, 1993), 260.
CHAPTER SIX
1 Wilma King, Stolen Childhood: Slave Youth in Nineteenth-Century America (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1995), 78.
2 George P. Rawick, ed., The American Slave: A Composite Autobiography (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1977), Vol. 1, Alabama Narratives, 412.
3 Ibid., Vol. 3, Texas Narratives, Part 2, 950.
4 Ibid., Vol. 10, Mississippi Narratives, Part 5, 2358.
5 Ibid., Vol. 10, Mississippi Narratives, Part 5, 2337.
6 Ibid., Vol. 2, Texas Narratives, Part 1, 231.
7 Ibid., Vol. 8, Mississippi Narratives, Part 3, 1292.
8 Ibid., Vol. 9, Texas Narratives, Part 8, 3711.
9 Ibid., Vol. 4, Texas Narratives, Part 3, 1110; Vol. 2, Texas Narratives, Part 1, 421; Vol. 1, Alabama Narratives, 352.
10 Ibid., Vol. 4, Texas Narratives, Part 3, 1110; Janet Cornelius, “We Slipped and Learned to Read: Slave Accounts of the Literacy Process, 1830-1865,” Phylon 44, no. 2 (September 1983): 179.
11 Ibid., Vol. 7, Texas Narratives, Part 6, 2643-2644.
12 King, Stolen Childhood, 77.
13 Rawick, ed., The American Slave, Vol. 2, Texas Narratives, Part 1, 96-97.
14 King, Stolen Childhood, 77.
15 Rawick, ed., The American Slave, Vol. 5, Indiana and Ohio Narratives, 424.
16 King, Stolen Childhood, 78.
17 Rawick, ed., The American Slave, Vol. 7, Mississippi Narratives, Part 2, 497.
18 Ibid., Vol. 9, Mississippi Narratives, Part 4, 1664.
19 Ronald E. Butchart, Northern Schools, Southern Blacks, and Reconstruction: Freedmen’s Education, 1862-1875 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1980), 176.
20 James D. Anderson, The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860-1935 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1988), 5.
21 Eric Foner, Reconstruction: America’s Unfinished Revolution, 1863-1877 (New York: Harper and Row, 1988), 96-97.
22 Anderson, The Education of Blacks, 18; Butchart, Northern Schools, Southern Blacks, 176.
23 Ira Berlin, ed., Herbert Gutman, Power and Culture: Essays on the American Working Class (New York: The New Press, 1987), 269.
24 Ibid.
25 Wilbert L. Jenkins, Seizing the New Day: African Americans in Post-Civil War Charleston (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1998), 72-73.
26 For an excellent study that chronicles the efforts of African Americans to extend literacy to freedmen in the South, see Clara Merritt DeBoer, His Truth Is Marching On: African Americans Who Taught the Freedmen for the American Missionary Association, 1861-1877 (New York: Garland, 1995).
27 Linda M. Perkins, “The Black Female American Missionary Association Teacher in the South, 1861-1870,” in Jeffrey J. Crow and Flora J. Hatley, eds., Black Americans in North Carolina and the South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1984), 132.
28 Ibid.
29 Ibid.
&nbs
p; 30 Ibid.
31 Ibid.
32 Ibid., 133.
33 Joseph T. Glatthaar, Forged in Battle: The Civil War Alliance of Black Soldiers and White Officers (New York: Meridian Books, 1990), 245
34 William E. Montgomery, Under Their Own Vine and Fig Tree: The African-American Church in the South, 1865-1900 (Baton Rouge and London: Louisiana State University Press, 1993), 147.
35 Reginald F. Hildebrand, The Times Were Strange and Stirring: Methodist Preachers and the Crisis of Emancipation (Durham, NC, and London: Duke University Press, 1995), 61.
36 Ibid.
37 Perkins, “The Black Female,” 129; Bertram Wyatt-Brown, “Black Schooling during Reconstruction,” in Walter J. Fraser Jr., R. Frank Saunders Jr., and Jon L. Wakelyn, eds., The Web of Southern Social Relations: Women, Family, and Education (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1985), 150.
38 Perkins, “The Black Female,” 131.
39 Ibid.
40 Butchart, Northern Schools, Southern Blacks, 176.
41 Peter Kolchin, First Freedom: The Responses of Alabama’s Blacks to Emancipation and Reconstruction (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1972), 84.
42 C. Peter Ripley, Slaves and Freedmen in Civil War Louisiana (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1976), 144.
43 Butchart, Northern Schools, Southern Blacks, 170.
44 Kolchin, First Freedom, 84-85.
45 Sidney Andrews, The South since the War: As Shown by Fourteen Weeks of Travel and Observation in Georgia and the Carolinas (Boston: Ticknor and Fields, 1866), 337-38.
46 John T. Trowbridge, The South: A Tour of Its Battlefields and Ruined Cities, A Journey through the Desolated States, And Talks with the People (Hartford, CT: L. Stebbins, 1866), 337.
47 Mary Beth Norton, A People and a Nation: A History of the United States, 2 vols. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1990), 2:454.
48 William A. Byrne, “The Burden and Heat of the Day: Slavery and Servitude in Savannah, 1733-1865” (Ph.D. diss., Florida State University, 1979), 348; Jenkins, Seizing the New Day, 89-90; Trowbridge, The South, 509.
49 Anderson, The Education of Blacks, 19.
50 Norton, A People and a Nation, 2:454.
51 William Preston Vaughn, Schools for All: The Blacks and Public Education in the South, 1865-1877 (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1974), 15.
52 Ibid., 15; New York Times, July 3, 1874.
53 Butchart, Northern Schools, Southern Blacks, 170.
54 Gary B. Nash, The American People: Creating a Nation and a Society, 2 vols. (New York: Harper and Row, 1990), 1:557.
55 Wayne E. Reilly ed., Sarah Jane Foster: Teacher of the Freedmen, A Diary and Letters (Charlottesville and London: University Press of Virginia, 1990), 47.
56 Ibid.
57 Ibid.
58 Wyatt-Brown, “Black Schooling during Reconstruction,” 159.
59 Ibid.
60 Robert C. Morris, ed., Semi-Annual Report on Schools for Freedmen, Vol.1, Numbers 1-10, January 1866-July 1870 (New York: AMS Press, 1980), (Semi-Annual Report for January 1, 1867), 11.
61 John T. O’Brien Jr., ”From Bondage to Citizenship: The Richmond Black Community 1865-1867” (Ph.D. diss., University of Rochester, 1974), 81.
62 Robert H. Abzug, “The Black Family during Reconstruction,” in Nathan I. Huggins, Martin Kilson, and Daniel M. Fox, eds., Key Issues in the Afro-American Experience, 2 vols. (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1971), 2:38.
63 Butchart, Northern Schools, Southern Blacks, 169.
64 Jacqueline Baldwin Walker, “Blacks in North Carolina during Reconstruction” (Ph.D. diss., Duke University, 1979), 97.
65 Wyatt-Brown, “Black Schooling during Reconstruction,” 160.
66 Ibid.
67 Anderson, The Education of Blacks, 7.
68 Ibid., 6-7.
69 Foner, Reconstruction, 97.
70 Anderson, The Education of Blacks, 6-7.
71 Ripley, Slaves and Freedmen, 138.
72 Foner, Reconstruction, 97; Joe M. Richardson, Christian Reconstruction: The American Missionary Association and Southern Blacks, 1861-1890 (Athens and London: University of Georgia Press, 1986), 4; Perkins, “The Black Female,” 125.
73 Walker, “Blacks in North Carolina,” 98.
74 Foner, Reconstruction, 98; Kolchin, First Freedom, 86.
75 Abzug, “The Black Family,” 37-38; C. Vann Woodward, ed., After the War: A Tour of the Southern States, 1865-1866 (By Whitelaw Reid) (New York: Harper and Row, 1965), 511.
76 Foner, Reconstruction, 96, 98; Ripley, Slaves and Freedmen, 139.
77 Willard B. Gatewood, “The Remarkable Misses Rollin: Black Women in Reconstruction South Carolina,” South Carolina Historical Magazine 92, no. 3 (July 1991): 177.
78 Maxine Deloris Jones, “A Glorious Work: The American Missionary Association and Black North Carolinians, 1863-1880” (Ph.D. diss., Florida State University, 1982), 66-67.
79 Ibid., 67.
80 Marion B. Lucas, A History of Blacks in Kentucky: From Slavery to Segregation, 1760-1891 (Lexington: Kentucky Historical Society, 1992), 1:239.
81 Jones, “A Glorious Work,” 65.
82 Ibid., 67.
83 William Loren Katz, Black Indians: A Hidden Heritage (New York: Atheneum Books, 1986), 145-46.
84 Foner, Reconstruction, 98.
85 Anderson, The Education of Blacks, 10.
86 Ibid., 11; Butchart, Northern Schools, Southern Blacks, 173.
87 Butchart, Northern Schools, Southern Blacks, 171.
88 James M. Smallwood, Time of Hope, Time of Despair: Black Texans during Reconstruction (Port Washington, NY: Kennikat Press, 1981), 102-3.
89 Lucas, A History of Blacks in Kentucky, 1:239.
90 Smallwood, Time of Hope, Time of Despair, 103.
91 Montgomery, Under Their Own Vine and Fig Tree, 150-51.
92 Ibid., 151.
93 Ibid.
94 Ibid.
95 Ibid., 148-49.
96 Ibid., 151.
97 Foner, Reconstruction, 98.
98 Woodward, ed., After the War, 152.
99 Nash, The American People, 1:557.
100 Rawick, ed., The American Slave, Vol. 5, Indiana and Ohio Narratives, 111.
101 Nash, The American People, Vol. 1, 557.
102 Rawick, ed., The American Slave, Vol. 5, Texas Narratives, Part 4, 1648.
103 Butchart, Northern Schools, Southern Blacks, 186-87.
104 Reilly, ed., Sarah Jane Foster, 51.
105 Ibid.
106 Ibid., 52
107 Trowbridge, The South, 377.
108 John W. Alvord, Letters from the South Relating to the Condition of Freedmen Addressed to Major General O. O. Howard (Washington, DC: Howard University Press, 1870), 22.
109 Rawick, ed., The American Slave, Vol. 8, Mississippi Narratives, Part 3, 991.
110 Anderson, The Education of Blacks, 25; Kolchin, First Freedom, 99.
111 Hildebrand, The Times Were Strange, 62.
112 Bernard E. Powers, Black Charlestonians: A Social History, 1822-1885 (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1994), 155; E. Horace Fitchett, “The Role of Claflin College in Negro Life in South Carolina,” Journal of Negro Education 12, no. 1 (Winter 1943): 43-45.
113 Lenwood G. Davis, A Travel Guide to Black Historical Sites and Landmarks in North Carolina (Winston-Salem, NC: Bandit Books, 1991), 172-73.
114 Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham, Righteous Discontent: The Women’s Movement in the Black Baptist Church, 1880-1920 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993), 21-23; Benjamin Brawley, History of Morehouse College (College Park, MD: McGrath, 1970), 9; Addie Louise Joyner Butler, The Distinctive Black College: Talladega, Tuskegee, and Morehouse (Metuchen, NJ: The Scarecrow Press, 1977), 102-3; Powers, Black Charlestonians, 155; Davis, A Travel Guide, 167-68.
Climbing Up to Glory Page 35