by Rob Harper
15; mcconnel , A Country Between, 208– 9.
6. croghan, “Journal of transactions with the indians” [1765], crp 9:252 (“expecting”), 258
(“our Brethren”), and 261 (“Open the trade”); craig, “Journal of george croghan [1765],” 405,
409; Minutes of Conferences, Held at Fort Pitt, in April and May, 1768 (philadelphia: William
goddard, 1769), 17– 18; george croghan, journal, 4 sept. 1770, box 8, folder 11, gcp. For shaw-
nee and delaware migrations, see mcconnel , A Country Between, 208– 9; sami lakomäki,
Gathering Together: The Shawnee People Through Diaspora and Nationhood, 1600– 1870 (new
haven, ct: yale University press, 2014), 91– 92.
7. Johnson to gage, 24 nov. 1767, Documentary History of the State of New York, 2:886;
dgW 2:297– 98.
8. croghan to Johnson, [3 June 1767], pWJ 5:561 (“the King’s orders”); Ohio company doc-
uments, 1745– 62, George Mercer Papers: Relating to the Ohio Company of Virginia, ed. lois
mulkearn (pittsburgh, pa: University of pittsburgh press, 1954), 249, 251, 69, facing 226; Thomas
Woods, deposition, 19 sept. 1771, pa 4:435; deed of garret pendergrass, Feb. 1770, society col-
lection, hsp; preston, Texture of Contact, 224– 25, 245– 52; nicholas B. Wainwright, George
Croghan: Wilderness Diplomat (chapel hill: University of north carolina press, 1959), 275– 78;
albert h. tillson, Gentry and Common Folk: Political Culture on a Virginia Frontier, 1740– 1789
(lexington: University press of Kentucky, 1991), 74– 75; John mack Faragher, Daniel Boone: The
Life and Legend of an American Pioneer (new york: holt, 1992), 89– 90; James patrick mcclure,
“The ends of the american earth: pittsburgh and the Upper Ohio Valley to 1795” (ph.d. diss.,
188
notes to pages 28–32
University of michigan, 1983), 9– 17, 31– 35; d. Barr, “contested land,” 23– 56, 157, 171– 72,
199– 201.
9. [John] Baynton, [samuel] Wharton, and [george] morgan to Johnson, 28 dec. 1766, The
New Régime, 1765– 1767, ed. clarence Walworth alvord, collections of the illinois state histori-
cal library, vol. 11 (springfield, il: illinois state historical library, 1916), 465; croghan, abstract
from journal, 24 may 1766, enclosed in croghan to gage, 26 may 1766, as 51, tgp; alexander
mackay, notice, 22 June 1766, pa 4:251– 52; Fauquier, proclamation, 31 July 1766, pa 4:255; mur-
ray to gage, 24 June 1767, as 66, tgp; William crawford to george Washington, 29 sept. 1767,
gWp; croghan to Johnson, 18 Oct. 1767, pWJ 12:374; alfred proctor James, The Ohio Company:
Its Inner History (pittsburgh, pa: University of pittsburgh press, 1959), 6– 7, 13, 30– 32, 49, 76;
mcclure, “ends of the american earth,” 202– 3; d. Barr, “contested land,” 29– 30, 37– 38, 199,
207– 8.
10. daniel J. hulsebosch, Constituting Empire: New York and the Transformation of Consti-
tutionalism in the Atlantic World, 1664– 1830 (chapel hill: University of north carolina press,
2005), 8; peter Karsten, Between Law and Custom: “High” and “Low” Legal Cultures in the Lands
of the British Diaspora— the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, 1600– 1900
(cambridge: cambridge University press, 2002).
11. petition of traders, 18 dec. 1767, pWJ 6:19– 20 (“one half”); croghan to gage, 8 aug.
1770, as 94, tgp (“every Farmer”); crawford to Washington, 29 sept. 1767, gWp (“more
oblidging”); Thomas smallman, “names of the traders gone into the indian vil ages,” 1 June
1767, misfiled with murray to gage, 16 may 1767, as 65, tgp.
12. crawford to Washington, 29 sept. 1767, gWp; d. Barr, “contested land,” 198– 99.
13. John W. Jordan, ed., “James Kenny’s ‘Journal to ye Westward,’ 1758– 59,” Pennsylvania
Magazine of History and Biography 37, no. 4 (1913): 419; John W. Jordan, ed., “Journal of James
Kenny, 1761– 63,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 37, no. 1– 2 (1913): 199; angus
mcdonald to henry Bouquet, 8 apr. 1762, The Papers of Col. Henry Bouquet, ed. sylvester K.
stevens and donald h. Kent, northwestern pennsylvania historical series (harrisburg: penn-
sylvania historical commission, 1940– 43), ser. 21648, part 1, 66– 67; “indian proceedings,” 16
June 1765, pWJ 11:791; alexander mcKee to Johnson, 18 June 1765, pWJ 11:796; steel et al. to
penn, 2 apr. 1768, crp 9:507; Boyd crumrine, ed., Virginia Court Records in Southwestern
Pennsylvania: Records of the District of West Augusta and Ohio and Yohogania Counties, Vir-
ginia, 1775– 1780 (Baltimore: genealogical publishing company, 1974), 531; application #2844, 5
apr. 1769, new purchase register, ser. #17.43, records of the land Office, pennsylvania state
archives, http://www.phmc.state.pa.us/bah/dam/rg/sd/r17sda.htm#17.43 (accessed 10 sept.
2016). mohawk peter may have been related or even identical to the delaware captain peter,
whom ryan killed at redstone, but the available evidence suggests they were probably two sep-
arate individuals: preston, Texture of Contact, 218– 20.
14. Minutes of Conferences, 4, 11, 14– 15, 21 (“remove,” 11; “disagreeable,” 21); preston, Texture
of Contact, 258– 61.
15. Minutes of Conferences, 22.
16. mcKee, journal, n.d., pWJ 7:184 (“as much theirs”); red hawk, speech, n.d., pWJ 7:406–
8; earl of hil sborough to Johnson, 4 Jan. and 13 may 1769, Documents Relative to the Colonial
History of the State of New- York, 15 vols., ed. e. B. O’callaghan (albany, ny: Weed, parsons, &
co., 1853– 58), 8:144– 45, 165– 66; gage to Johnson, 3 and 23 apr. 1769, pWJ 12:709, 6:708– 9; isaac
hamilton to gage, 10 aug. 1769, as 87, tgp; Wharton to Johnson, 16 aug. 1769, pWJ 7:96– 97;
croghan to Johnson, 22 dec. 1769, pWJ 7:315– 17; mcclure, “ends of the american earth,” 90;
notes to pages 32–34
189
Wainwright, George Croghan, 28, 257; William J. campbel , Speculators in Empire: Iroquoia and
the 1768 Treaty of Fort Stanwix (norman: University of Oklahoma press, 2012). cf. randolph c.
downes, Council Fires on the Upper Ohio: A Narrative of Indian Affairs in the Upper Ohio Val ey
Until 1795 (pittsburgh, pa: University of pittsburgh press, 1940), 143; Woody holton, Forced
Founders: Indians, Debtors, Slaves, and the Making of the American Revolution in Virginia
(chapel hill: University of north carolina press, 1999), 27– 30.
17. murray to gage, 16 may 1767, as 65, tgp (“lawless raskals”); henry stuart, account of
proceedings with indians, 25 aug. 1776, cO5/77 fol. 169v (“people hunting or settling”); alex-
ander cameron, pass to Ogayoolah, 20 sept. 1773, enclosed in John stuart to gage, 14 sept. 1774,
as 123, tgp (“deer skins”); gage to croghan, 21 mar. 1766, box 6, folder 8, gcp; mackay, no-
tice, 22 June 1766, pa 4:251– 52; croghan, journal, 21 sept. 1770, gcp; robert callender to penn,
21 apr. 1771, pa 4:411– 12; mcKee, report, 14, 18, and 22 may 1771, enclosed in charles edmon-
stone to gage, 24 aug. 1771, as 105, tgp; stuart to gage, 7 sept. 1772, as 114, tgp; croghan to
michael cresap, may 1774, “turmoil at pittsburgh: diary of augustine prevost, 1774,” ed. nich-
olas B. Wainwright, Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 85, no. 2 (1961): 153; ste-
phen aron, How the West Was Lost: The Transformation of Kentucky from Daniel Boone to Henry
Clay (Baltimore: Johns hopkins University press, 1996),
5, 18– 19.
18. cf. gregory evans dowd, A Spirited Resistance: The North American Indian Struggle for
Unity, 1745– 1815 (Baltimore: Johns hopkins University press, 1992), 42– 45.
19. shawnee chiefs, speeches, 25 sept. 1769, enclosed in george turnbull to gage, 30 sept.
1769, as 87, tgp; Johnson to gage, 21 dec. 1768, pWJ 12:673; mcconnel , A Country Be-
tween, 251– 52; White, Middle Ground, 351– 53; dowd, Spirited Resistance, 42– 45.
20. croghan to Johnson, 10 may 1770, pWJ 7:652 (“gineral Union”); mcKee, journal, n.d.,
Papers of Sir Wil iam Johnson, 7:184 (“defend themselves”); stuart to lord Botetourt, 13 Jan.
1770, enclosed in stuart to gage, 27 Jan. 1770, as 89, tgp (“general confederacy”); mcKee to
Johnson, 31 dec. 1772, pWJ 8:679 (“[co]ntempt and neglect”); croghan to Johnson, 18 Oct.
1767, pWJ 12:374; croghan to Benjamin Franklin, 2 Oct. 1767, box 5, folder 28, gcp; croghan to
Johnson, 8 aug. 1769, pWJ 7:78– 79; mcKee to croghan, 20 Feb. 1770, pWJ 7:404– 6; gage to
Johnson, 8 Oct. 1770, pWJ 12:872; croghan, journal, 16 sept. 1770; stuart to gage, 12 dec. 1770,
as 98, tgp; John Wilkins, journal of transactions, 8 aug.– 1 Oct. 1770, 22 apr. 1771, and 11– 15
nov. 1771, as 138, folder 20, tgp; mcconnel , A Country Between, 262– 63; dowd, Spirited
Resistance, 40– 43.
21. red hawk, speech, n.d., enclosed in mcKee to croghan, 20 Feb. 1770, pWJ 7:408 (“great
trouble”); mcKee to croghan, 20 Feb. 1770, pWJ 7:404– 6 (“own measures”); holton, Forced
Founders, 24– 25. mcKee’s mother was an adoptive shawnee, and shawnees therefore considered
him one of their own: larry l. nelson, A Man of Distinction Among Them: Alexander McKee
and the Ohio Country Frontier, 1754– 1799 (Kent, Oh: Kent state University press, 1999).
22. “information concerning an indian conspiracy,” 7 mar. 1771, pWJ 8:6 (“strike,” “their
councils”); edmonstone to gage, 3 apr. 1771, as 101, tgp (“dread[ed]”); minutes of proceed-
ings, 20 dec. 1770, enclosed in edmonstone to gage, 27 dec. 1770, as 99, tgp (“confirm”);
mcKee, report, 6 June 1771, enclosed in edmonstone to gage, 24 aug. 1771, as 105, tgp (“great
confusion”); intelligence received from a chief of the shawanese, n.d., enclosed in edmonstone
to gage, 9 mar. 1771, as 100, tgp; callender to John penn, 21 apr. 1771, pa 4:411; mcKee, re-
marks, [July 1771], pWJ 12:916; tyler Boulware, Deconstructing the Cherokee Nation: Town, Re-
gion, and Nation Among Eighteenth- Century Cherokees (gainesville: University press of Florida,
2011), 147– 51.
190
notes to pages 35–38
23. croghan to Barnard gratz, 11 may 1773, draper 7J:136 (“small furrs”); croghan to mi-
chael gratz, 29 July 1773, box 4, indian Wars & indians, case 4, gratz (“small cargo”); Jones 89;
gratzes to croghan, 11 June and 13 sept. 1773, folder 11, box 6, gcp; george croghan to gratzes,
18 July 1773, box 4, indian Wars & indians, case 4, gratz; george croghan, account with White
eyes, sept.– nov. 1773, box 2, folder 44, daF; John lacey, “Journal of a mission to the indians in
Ohio, July– september, 1773,” Historical Magazine, and Notes and Queries Concerning the Antiq-
uities, History, and Biography of America, 2nd ser., 7, no. 2 (1870): 105; “regulations for indian
affairs in the middle department,” 10 apr. 1776, aa4 5:1663– 64.
24. croghan, journal of transactions, 29 apr. 1765, crp 9:254 (“all the people”); mcKee,
journal, [1769], pWJ 7:185 (“the six nations”); callender to shippen, 22 apr. 1771, pa 4:413 (“es-
tablish schools,” “annex”); Jones 89 (“be religious”), 98– 99; mmd 97; Jordan, “Journal of James
Kenny, 1761– 63,” 158– 59; Beatty, Journal of a Two Months Tour, 52, 70; earl p. Olmstead, David
Zeisberger: A Life Among the Indians (Kent, Oh: Kent state University press, 1997), 182– 200;
mcconnel , A Country Between, 226; mcclure, “ends of the american earth,” 56. On neolin, cf.
dowd, Spirited Resistance, 36.
25. mcclure 61, 74– 76, 81– 84, 94– 96 (“to promote,” 83); Jones 98– 99 (“protect them”). Jones
refers to his informant only as “Kil buck,” a name applied to both Bemineo and gelelemend, but
Bemineo was more critical of the moravians: mmd 135– 36, 608. see also dowd, Spirited Resis-
tance, 68– 72; “extracts from the Journal of John parrish, 1773,” Pennsylvania Magazine of His-
tory and Biography 16, no. 4 (1893): 448; hermann Wellenreuther, “White eyes and the
delawares’ Vision of an indian state,” Pennsylvania History 68, no. 2 (spring 2001): 153– 55.
26. “speech sent from the chiefs of the delawares, munsies, and mohekins . . . to the gov-
ernors of pennsylvania, maryland and Virginia,” [1771], box 6, folder 30, gcp (“the great
King”); hugh Wal ace to Johnson, 7 Oct. 1772, pWJ 8:609; Johnson to gage, 1 Jan. 1773, pWJ
8:688– 89; lacey, “Journal of a mission to the indians,” 7; “the gov’rs answer to new comer’s
message,” 26 nov. 1773, pa 4:469; mmd 97; Jones 98– 99. The planned embassy to london had
many precedents: alden t. Vaughan, Transatlantic Encounters: American Indians in Britain,
1500– 1776 (cambridge: cambridge University press, 2008); coll Thrush, Indigenous London:
Native Travelers at the Heart of Empire (new haven, ct: yale University press, 2017).
27. lakomäki, Gathering Together, 75.
28. Thomas Woods, deposition, 19 sept. 1771, pa 4:435 (quotations); minutes of the provin-
cial council, 16 apr. 1768, crp 9:508; mcclure, “ends of the american earth,” 142– 43; d. Barr,
“contested land,” 235– 36.
29. crawford to James tilghman, 9 aug. 1771, pa 4:424 (“Keep off”); george Wilson to
arthur st. clair, 14 aug. 1771, scp 1:258 (“to appose”); dgW 2:295; robert lettis hooper Jr. to
Johnson, 9 Feb. 1771, pWJ 7:1132– 33; crawford to Washington, 20 apr. and 2 aug. 1771, gWp;
croghan to st. clair, 4 June 1772, pa 4:452– 53; st. clair to Joseph shippen, 18 July 1772, scp
1:265– 67; croghan to Wharton, 11 nov. 1772, “letters of colonel george croghan,” Pennsylvania
Magazine of History and Biography 15, no. 4 (1891): 431– 32; crawford to Washington, 12 nov.
1773, gWp; Thomas smith to shippen, 7 apr. 1774, pa 4:619; Francis Wade to Johnson, 20 apr.
1774, pWJ 8:1125– 26; d. Barr, “contested land,” 235– 42; Wainwright, George Croghan, 28, 257,
274– 75, 277– 78; mcclure, “ends of the american earth,” 90.
30. Washington to crawford, 21 sept. 1767, account book 2, gWp (“temporary expedient”);
crawford to Washington, 7 Jan. and 13 Oct. 1769 and 5 may 1770, ser. 4: general correspondence,
gWp; applications 374 and 1304, 3 apr. 1769, new purchase register (accessed 3 June 2014).
31. application 2736, 3 apr. 1769, and 3357, 13 June 1769, new purchase register (accessed 3
notes to pages 39–42
191
June 2014); mcclure, “ends of the american earth,” 276– 79, 286. Where pennsylvania’s claims
were uncertain, crawford surveyed but did not buy, even as he worked as a magistrate to en-
force the province’s jurisdiction: crawford to Washington, 7 Jan. 1769, ser. 4: general correspon-
dence, gWp.
32. david l. preston’s catalog of indian- colonist murders in greater pennsylvania and the
Ohio country between 1760 and 1774 indicates a decline in bloodshed during the early 1770s:
preston, Texture of Contac
t, table 3.
33. John armstrong to penn, 29 Jan. 1768, crp 9:448– 49 (“carried off”); Vaughan, “Frontier
Banditti,” 3, 8– 9; gregory evans dowd, War Under Heaven: Pontiac, the Indian Nations and the
British Empire (Baltimore: Johns hopkins University press, 2002), 191– 203; Boulware, Decon-
structing the Cherokee Nation, 138– 39.
34. preston, Texture of Contact, 232– 33. richard White argues that British officials in the
1760s largely failed to emulate the French alliance system of previous decades, but the French
period had witnessed ample violence as wel . Both before and after the midcentury wars, vio-
lence was prevalent but contained by energetic and creative diplomacy: see Middle Ground, 75–
82, 315– 16, and 339– 51; Brett rushforth, “slavery, the Fox Wars, and the limits of alliance,”
Wil iam and Mary Quarterly 63, no. 1 (2006): 53– 80.
35. preston, Texture of Contact, 233– 42 (“ill treatment,” 242), table 3; Minutes of Confer-
ences, 8, 9 (“equal y concerned,” 9); Johnson to gage, 20 July 1765, pWJ 11:862; gage to Johnson,
19 may 1766, pWJ 12:91– 92; croghan, abstract from journal, 22– 23 may 1766, enclosed in
croghan to gage, 26 may 1766, as 51, tgp; Thomas smallman, “names of the traders gone
into the indian vil ages from F. pitt,” 1 June 1767, misfiled with murray to gage, 16 may 1767, as
65, tgp; mcKee to croghan, 20 sept. 1767, pWJ 5:686– 87; croghan to gage, 10 Oct. 1767, as 71,
tgp; penn to Johnson, 18 Feb. 1768, crp 9:469– 70; White, Middle Ground, 348.
36. On paxton and the susquehanna Valley, see peter c. mancall, Val ey of Opportunity:
Economic Culture Along the Upper Susquehanna, 1700– 1800 (ithaca, ny: cornell University
press, 1991); Jane t. merritt, At the Crossroads: Indians and Empires on a Mid- Atlantic Frontier,
1700– 1763 (chapel hill: University of north carolina press, 2003). For staunton and cismon-
tane Virginia, see Warren r. hofstra, The Planting of New Virginia: Settlement and Landscape in
the Shenandoah Val ey (Baltimore: Johns hopkins University press, 2005). For Bemineo and
gelelemend, see callender to shippen, 22 apr. 1771, pa 4:413.
37. edmonstone to gage, 20 sept. 1769, as 87, tgp (“through the negligence”); david