302 Alice Gouree: File 54188-482, INS.
303 Then there was: “Ellis Island Immigration Station, Hearings,” 42–43; Howe, Confessions of a Reformer, 270. In the book, Howe does not refer to Lamarca by name, but the reference is clear. The unnamed woman was “an Italian girl, had been married in Algeria and brought to this country. Her husband had taken her clothes away from her and had kept her in confinement. She had been forced by him to receive men. She was arrested and brought to the island. The husband had not been arrested.”
303 Giulietta seemed: On the case of Giulietta Lamarca, see File 53986-43, INS. 304 Bennet charged: NYT, July 19, September 6, 1916.
304 Howe described: “Ellis Island Immigration Station, Hearings,” 55–56. 304 Howe’s inattention: Letter from Frederic C. Howe to Woodrow Wilson, December 8, 1914, Series 2, and Letter from Frederic C. Howe to Woodrow Wilson, December 31, 1917, Series 4, WW. For Howe’s outside interests, see NYT, April 28, 1915.
305 Howe spoke out: NYT, June 11, 1915.
305 Even the Times: NYT, June 21, 1916.
306 Even Howe’s choice: Sandra Adickes, To Be Young Was Very Heaven: Women in New York Before the First World War (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997), 59–61, 151.
306 Randolph Bourne believed: Randolph S. Bourne, “Trans-national America,” Atlantic, July 1916. See also, David A. Hollinger, Postethnic America: Beyond Multiculturalism (New York: Basic Books, 1995).
307 For Bourne: “Americanization,” New Republic, January 29, 1916.
307 The president had: Arthur S. Link, Wilson: Campaigns for Progressivism and Peace, 1916–1917 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1965), 327–328.
308 The literacy test: Letter from Byron Uhl to Fiorello La Guardia, June 16, 1917, Folder 8, Box 26C7, FLG; NYT, March 28, 1917.
308 Instead of rejoicing: Barbara Miller Solomon, Ancestors and Immigrants: A Changing New England Tradition (New York: Wiley, 1956), 202.
309 The targeting of Germans: NYT, April 7, 1917, August 2, 1918; Witcover, Sabotage, 66–67.
309 Then there was: NYT, December 10, 1915, September 23, 24, 1917, September 2, 3, 1918; “Brewing and Liquor Interests and German Propaganda,” Hearings before a Subcommittee of the Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate, Sixty-Fifth Congress, Second Session.
CHAPTER FIFTEEN: REVOLUTION
311 As the train approached: NYT, February 10, 1919; Letter from A. D. H. Jackson to Anthony Caminetti, February 13, 1919, File 54235-36C, INS. There are differing accounts of the number of radicals sent from Seattle to New York. One account lists forty-five radicals, while another counts thirty-six with two more joining the group along the train route. The Jackson letter and a letter from immigration officials in Seattle corroborate that the number of radicals leaving Seattle was forty-seven. Letter from John H. Sargent, acting commissioner of immigration in Seattle to Commissioner General of Immigration Anthony Caminetti, February 7, 1919 in “I.W.W. Deportation Cases,” Hearings before a House Subcommittee of the Committee on Immigration and Naturalization, 66th Congress, Second Session, April 27–30, 1920. For the other numbers, see Robert K. Murray, Red Scare: A Study in National Hysteria, 1919–1920 (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1955), 194–195, and William Preston Jr., Aliens and Dissenters: Federal Suppression of Radicals, 1903–1933 (New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1963), 198–201.
312 The train arrived: Letter from A. D. H. Jackson to Anthony Caminetti, February 13, 1919, File 54235-36C, INS; NYT, February 10, 1919.
312 When the Red Special: New York Call, February 18, 1919.
312 Attorneys Caroline Lowe: Charles Recht, unpublished autobiography, Chapter 10, Folder 18, Box 1, Collection 176, CR; Preston, Aliens and Dissenters, 200.
312 In contrast to: New York Call, February 20, 1919.
312 The detainees were: NYTrib, February 21, 1919.
313 McDonald and the other: Frederic C. Howe, The Confessions of a Reformer (Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1967), 274–275.
313 Howe was swimming: Preston, Aliens and Dissenters, 182–183; “The Deportations,” Survey, February 22, 1919.
313 This expansion of the law: Memo from Thomas Fisher, Immigration Inspector, to Henry W. White, Commissioner of Immigration, Seattle, Washington, August 24, 1918; Letter from Henry W. White to Anthony Caminetti, August 28, 1918, File 54235-36B, INS.
314 Though he was out: Memo from John M. Abercrombie to All Commissioners of Immigration and Inspectors in Charge, March 14, 1919, File No. 54235-36B, INS.
314 For those Red Special: Preston, Aliens and Dissenters, 204–205. 314 Martin de Wal: Survey, May 17, June 14, 1919.
315 In the middle of this: NYT, June 3, 4, 5, 1919.
315 Howe was not: Memo from A. Warner Parker to Anthony Caminetti, April 17, 1919, File 54235-85B, INS.
316 The attacks on: Congressional Record, 66th Congress, 1st session, 1522–1524; Arthur Mann, La Guardia: A Fighter Against His Times, 1882–1933 (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1959), 101.
316 During this second hearing: “Conditions at Ellis Island,” Hearing before the Committee on Immigration and Naturalization, 66th Congress, 1st Session, November 24, 26, 28, 1919, 21, 76.
317 Back inside: “Conditions at Ellis Island,” 29–30.
317 The press had a field day: LD, December 13, 1919; NYW, November 25, 1919. 318 With Secretary Wilson: Kenneth D. Ackerman, Young J. Edgar: Hoover, the Red Scare, and the Assault on Civil Liberties (New York: Carroll & Graf Publishers, 2007), 50–59, 112. William N. Vayle [sic], “Before the Buford Sailed,” NYT, January 11, 1920.
318 If the earlier roundups: Letter from Francis G. Caffey to Frederic C. Howe, July 12, 1917, Folder R57, EG.
318 Beginning in 1907: Oscar Straus Diary, March 6, 1908, 165–166, Box 22, OS. 318 For two years: Candace Falk (ed.), Emma Goldman: A Documentary History of the American Years, vol. 2, Making Speech Free, 1902–1909 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005), 66–68, 254–257.
319 As Julius Goldman: File 54235-30, INS.
320 When released from jail: “Deportation Hearing of Emma Goldman,” Ellis Island, NY, October 27, and November 12, 1919, Folder 63R, EG. 320 Detained at Ellis Island: File 54709-449, INS; Constantine Panunzio, The Deportation Cases of 1919–1920 (New York: Da Capo Press, 1970), 60–62. 321 Apart from the: “Deportation: Its Meaning and Menace, Last Message to the People of America by Alexander Berkman and Emma Goldman,” Ellis Island, New York, U.S.A., December 1919, LOC.
322 In his waning: John Lombardi, Labor’s Voice in the Cabinet: A History of the Department of Labor from its Origin to 1921 (New York: AMS Press, 1968), 132; Louis F. Post, “Living a Long Life Over Again,” 309, 322, unpublished manuscript, LOC.
322 Post complained: Louis F. Post, “Administrative Decisions in Connection with Immigration,” American Political Science Review 10 (May 1916). 323 Still in office: Louis F. Post, The Deportations Delirium of Nineteen-Twenty (Chicago: Charles H. Kerr, 1923), 1–27.
323 Post found that: Emma Goldman, Living My Life, vol. 2 (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1931), chapter 51.
323 Collecting their things: Alice Wexler, Emma Goldman in Exile: From the Russian Revolution to the Spanish Civil War (Boston: Beacon Press, 1989), 13–15. For more on Goldman’s deportation, see Candace Serena Falk, Love, Anarchy and Emma Goldman (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1984), 181–182, and Alice Wexler, Emma Goldman: An Intimate Life, (New York: Pantheon Books, 1984), 271–276; Ackerman, Young J. Edgar, 160.
324 Colorado congressman: Vayle, “Before the Buford Sailed.” A slightly different version of this account appears in Congressional Record, January 5, 1920.
324 It must have been: Ackerman, Young J. Edgar, 160.
325 Upon arrival at: Post, The Deportations Delirium, 27.
325 The press was quick: Letter from F. W. Berkshire, Supervising Inspector to Anthony Caminetti, Commissioner General of Immigration, February 11, 1920, File 54235-36G, INS; LD, January 3, 1920; Post, The Deportations Delirium, 7.
325 “One could not imagin
e”: NYT, December 22, 1919.
325 A few years before: Bugajewitz v. Adams, 228 U.S. 585 (1913).
326 Post made enemies: Ackerman, Young J. Edgar, 274–276.
326 At the height: Panunzio, The Deportation Cases of 1919–1920, 16; Jane Perry Clark, Deportation of Aliens from the United States to Europe (New York: Columbia University Press, 1931), 225.
328 When the war ended: Fred Howe believed that big business was behind the war and repeatedly tried to convince Wilson of his theory that “it was not the Kaiser, nor the Czar, but the imperialistic adventurers who had driven their countries into conflict. Secret diplomacy, the conflict of bankers, the activity of munition-makers, exploiters, and concessionaires in the Mediterranean, in Morocco, in south and central Africa, had brought on the cataclysm; glacial-like aggregations of capital and credit were responsible for the war.” Howe, Confessions of a Reformer, 287.
328 No one felt: Howe, Confessions of a Reformer, 279–282.
328 To Howe, the brutality: Frederic C. Howe, “Lynch Law and the Immigrant Alien,” Nation, February 14, 1920.
329 Before leaving Ellis Island: Howe, Confessions of a Reformer, 327–328.
CHAPTER SIXTEEN: QUOTAS
330 Immigration officials stationed: NYT, July 2, 1923; Henry H. Curran, Pillar to Post (New York: Scribner’s, 1941), 287–288.
331 Restrictionists had long: “Plain Remarks on Immigration for Plain Americans,” SP, February 12, 1921.
331 Americans feared that: LD, December 18, 1920; Lothrop Stoddard, “The Permanent Menace from Europe,” in Madison Grant and Charles Steward Davison, eds., The Alien in Our Midst or Selling Our Birthright for a Mess of Pottage (New York: Galton, 1930), 226.
332 “The influx of aliens”: NYT, November 27, 1920.
332 This was all too: NYT, November 17, 1920.
333 As Congress moved: “The League’s Numerical Limitation Bill,” Publications of the Immigration Restriction League, No. 69, IRL.
333 Hall lived long: Immigration and Other Interests of Prescott Farnsworth Hall, compiled by Mrs. Prescott F. Hall, (New York: Knickerbocker Press, 1922).
334 If one of those ships: NYT, August 1, September 2, 1923.
334 A major backbone: Desmond King, Making Americans: Immigration, Race, and the Origins of the Diverse Democracy (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2000), 112.
334 The National German-American: Charles Thomas Johnson, Culture at Twilight: The National German-American Alliance, 1901–1918 (New York: Peter Lang, 1999), 102, 104–107, 118; NYT, March 8, 1916.
335 The growing popularity: Prescott F. Hall, “Immigration and World Eugenics,” Publications of the Immigration Restriction League, No. 71, IRL. Mark Snyderman and R. J. Herrnstein argue that intelligence testing had little effect on the passage of immigration quotas, while Leon Kamin argues the opposite. Mark Snyderman and R. J. Herrnstein, “Intelligence Tests and the Immigration Act of 1924,” American Psychologist, September 1983; Leon Kamin, The Science and Politics of I.Q. (Potomac, MD: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1974). Those taking a more nuanced view include Steven A. Gelb, Garland E. Allen, Andrew Futterman, and Barry A. Mehler, “Rewriting Mental Testing History: The View from the American Psychologist,” Sage Race Relations Abstracts, May 1986; and Franz Samelson, “Putting Psychology on the Map: Ideology and Intelligence Testing,” in Allan R. Buss, ed., Psychology in Social Context (New York: Irvington, 1979), 135–136. Stephen Jay Gould seems to want to have it both ways, arguing that immigration restriction was inevitable in the 1920s even without eugenics, but that “the timing, and especially the peculiar character, of the 1924 Restriction Act [sic] clearly reflected the lobbying of scientists and eugenicists.” Stephen Jay Gould, Hen’s Teeth and Horse’s Toes (New York: W.W. Norton, 1983), 301, and Stephen Jay Gould, The Mismeasure of Man (New York: W.W. Norton, 1996), 261–262.
335 Madison Grant’s: Madison Grant, “The Racial Transformation of America,” NAR, March 1924; Madison Grant, “America for the Americans,” Forum, September 1925.
335 “These immigrants adopt”: SP, May 7, 1921.
336 Such views were: SP, February 28, 1920; February 12, May 7, November 26, 1921.
336 America’s postwar: File 53986-43, INS.
338 His new job: Curran, Pillar to Post, 285–286.
338 “It was a poor place”: Curran, Pillar to Post, 291–296.
338 There was little that: Outlook, November 2, 1921; Delineator, March 1921. 338 Complaints by the British: Von Briesen Commission Report, 1903, File 52727/2, INS; Curran, Pillar to Post, 309.
339 Even Fred Howe: Frederic C. Howe, Confessions of a Reformer (Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1967), 257–258.
339 The British seemed: NYT, July 29, 1923.
339 A female British journalist: LD, August 4, 1923.
339 There had been: NYT, July 2, 1923; LD, September 22, 1923; Rex Hunter, “Eight Days on Ellis Island,” Nation, October 28, 1925.
340 What the British: NYT, December 19, 1922.
340 Yet this was not: “Despatch [sic] from H.M. Ambassador at Washington reporting on Conditions at Ellis Island Immigration Station,” 1923, NYPL. 341 Curran dismissed: Henry H. Curran, “Fewer and Better,” SP, Nov. 15, 1924; Curran, 298–299.
341 Curran admitted: Henry H. Curran, “Fewer and Better, or None,” SP, April 26, 1924.
341 Though this made: Curran, Pillar to Post, 296–297.
342 The shifting of inspection: William E. Chandler, “Consular Certificates for Intending Immigrants,” Independent, October 1, 1891.
342 Fiorello La Guardia: Letter from Fiorello La Guardia to Anthony Caminetti, September 9, 1916, Folder 8, Box 26C7, FLG.
342 Though La Guardia: Thomas Kessner, Fiorello H. La Guardia and the Making of Modern New York (New York: Penguin Books, 1989), 120–124.
343 These new quotas: Roger Daniels, Guarding the Golden Door: American Immigration Policy and Immigrants Since 1882 (New York: Hill and Wang, 2004), 56–57. 343 Stricter quotas led to: Letter from James J. Davis, Secretary of Labor to President Warren G. Harding, April 16, 1923, Folder 5, File 75, WGH; “President Calvin Coolidge’s Remarks at Governor’s Conference at the White House,” October 20, 1923, Series 1, File 52, CC.
343 Deportations also increased: Jane Perry Clark, Deportation of Aliens from the United States to Europe (New York: Columbia University Press, 1931), 29.
344 To rectify the situation: For a discussion of the national origins plan, see King, Making Americans, 204–228 and NYT, June 30, 1929; Harry H. Laughlin, “The Control of Trends in the Racial Composition of the American People,” in Grant and Davison, eds., The Alien in Our Midst or Selling Our Birthright for a Mess of Pottage.
344 The commission calculated: NYT, August 7, 1925.
344 Edward F. McSweeney: For more on the “history wars” of the 1920s and McSweeney’s role, see Jonathan Zimmerman, “Each ‘Race’ Could Have Its Heroes Sung: Ethnicity and the History Wars in the 1920s,” Journal of American History 87, no, 1 (June 2000), and Christopher J. Kauffman, “Edward McSweeney, the Knights of Columbus, and the Irish-American Response to Anglo-Saxonism, 1900–1925,” American Catholic Studies 114, no. 4 (Winter 2003). See also, NYT, September 8, 1921, June 9, 1923, and BG, July 10, 1921.
345 More substantively: W. E. Burghardt Du Bois, The Gift of Black Folk: The Negroes in the Making of America (Boston: Stratford, 1924) and David Levering Lewis, W. E. B. Du Bois: The Fight for Equality and the American Century, 1919– 1963 (New York: Henry Holt, 2000), 95–96.
345 To a pro-immigration: NYT, August 7, 1925. See also Edward F. McSweeney, “The Immigration Act of 1924: Fallaciousness of the ‘National Origins’ Theory,” Journal of the American-Irish Historical Society 223 (1926).
345 In the late afternoon: Framingham News, November 17, 19, 1928.
346 Powderly had once: T. V. Powderly, “Immigration’s Menace to the National Health,” NAR, July 1902; Letter from Terence V. Powderly to Frederick Wallis, September 9, 1920, Box 139, TVP.
346 Freed from the
burdens: Vincent J. Falzone, Terence V. Powderly: Middle-Class Reformer (Washington, DC: University Press of America, 1978), 191–193.
346 Powderly was not: Henry H. Goddard, “Feeblemindedness: A Question of Definition,” American Association for the Study of the Feeble Minded: Proceedings and Addresses 33 (1928); Leila Zenderland, Measuring Minds: Henry Herbert Goddard and the Origins of American Intelligence Testing (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 325–327; Gould, The Mismeasure of Man, 202–204.
347 By the time: Edward Alsworth Ross, Seventy Years of It: An Autobiography (New York: Appleton-Century, 1936), 275–277.
347 Nine-year-old Edoardo Corsi: Edward Corsi, In the Shadow of Liberty (New York: Arno Press, 1969), 3–7, 22. As proof that the memory of immigrants, like all memory, is usually fuzzy around the edges, Corsi’s account of his family’s arrival is slightly off. The Corsi family arrived in November 1906, not October 1907 as Corsi notes, meaning that Edward was nine years old, not ten. Also, young Edward is listed as “Nerino Corsi” on the steamship list.
348 Those days were: LD, February 24, 1934; “Report of the Ellis Island Committee,” March 1934.
348 The 1930s would: LD, February 24, 1934.
349 The combination of: Corsi, In the Shadow of Liberty, 95.
CHAPTER SEVENTEEN: PRISON
350 “Herzlich Willkommen!”: Arnold Krammer, Undue Process: The Untold Story of America’s German Alien Internees (Lanham, MD: Rowan & Littlefield, 1997), 10–11, 25–26, 30. For more on the issue, see John Christgau, “Enemies”: World War II Alien Internment (Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press, 1985).
351 On December 8, 1941: Memo from Major Lemuel B. Schofield to J. Edgar Hoover, December 8, 1941, File 56125-29, INS.
351 Some of the internees: Jerre Mangione, An Ethnic At Large: A Memoir of America in the Thirties and Forties (New York: Putnam’s, 1978), 321.
352 A large number of enemy: File 56125-29, INS; “Harbor Camp for Enemy Aliens,” NYTM, January 25, 1942. See also “The Detention of Krauss,” New Yor ker, March 6, 1943.
352 The Office of Strategic Services: The OSS report and other related documents can be found in File 56125-86, INS.
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