Trades Union Congress (TUC) 416, 417, 419, 426, 427, 509
Travis, Edward 27, 28, 36, 43, 48, 49, 53, 56, 60, 67–9, 69, 92, 94, 101, 121
Trawlerman (DIS computer scheme) 527–8
Trend, Burke 221, 240, 241, 242, 269–70, 288, 322–3, 354, 364
Trevor-Roper, Hugh 221
Tromsø 134
Truman, Harry S. 73, 85, 91, 101, 108, 109, 116
TRW Inc (telecoms company) 377
Tryst operation (British Embassy intercepts in Moscow) 280–1
‘Tunny’ (German cypher machine) 28, 349
Turing, Alan 2, 25, 27, 349, 492
Turkey 52, 109, 131–2, 157, 268, 269, 299–319, 325–8, 330–1, 334, 338, 357, 423, 472; Air Force 312–13, 313; Army 315; Foreign Ministry 312–13
Turkish People’s Liberation Army (TPLA) 300, 303–19
Turkish People’s Liberation Front (TPLF) 300, 308–10, 312
Turnbull, Andrew 524
Turner, Charles 312–16, 318
TUSLOG (US Logistics Organisation in Turkey) 302
Tuxedo (British nuclear weapons stockpile in Cyprus) 163
25 Mayo (Argentine aircraft carrier) 404
Typex (UK cypher machine) 56, 98
Tyuratam (Soviet Union) 306
U-2 spy planes 142, 226, 292, 296, 332, 471
UK-USA Technical Conference (1946) 95
Ukraine 472, 533
UKUSA (UK-USA signals intelligence agreements) 7, 213, 241, 273, 376, 577; combined comsec/sigint agencies 242; and deterioration of Anglo-US relationship 285; development of 89–95; and elint 111; existence of 1948 aagreement 577; and GCHQ 95–9, 222; and Hong Kong 152; and Israel 471; and Korea 99–101; and satellite collection 437–8; second-party members 444, 447; standardisation of equipment in 424; third-party members 209, 447, 452; and tightening of security 381; value of British Empire to 149
Ultra (WWII decrypts) 1, 24, 26, 32–8, 41, 42, 43, 57, 59, 60, 62, 72–3, 113, 354, 362, 363
Underwater Development Establishment 145
Unit 8200 (Israel sigint agency) 470
United Nations 66, 295, 336, 445–6, 472, 523–4; Monitoring, Inspection and Verification Commission 520; Protection Force 472; Security Council 517, 522; Security Council Resolution 1373 511–12; Special Commission (UNSCOM) 470–1
United States; and Cold War espionage 8; Communications Intelligence Board 97, 152; cyphers worked on by GC&CS 17, 29; Department of Defense 295; Division of Scientific Intelligence 322; Europe Command 180; Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board 263; Information Service 305; National Photographic Intelligence Center 296; National Reconnaissance Office 449, 458; National Security Council 334; and proposed German-Mexican alliance 15; and UKUSA intelligence treaty 89
University of Pennsylvania 426
Unye (Turkey) 313, 316
US Air Force 96, 101, 129, 152; 47th Radio Squadron 118; Griffiss Air Force Base (New York) 292; Johnson Air Force Base (North Carolina) 293; Security Service 118, 120, 301; Strategic Air Command 272
US Army 39, 40, 42, 43, 44, 52, 74–5, 77, 91, 94, 99, 102, 336, 413, 474; Intelligence Support Activity 452; Marines 525; Security Agency 99, 152, 302, 345–6; Seventh Army Corps 467; Special Forces 249; US Army Air Force 110–11
US Navy 39, 40, 42, 43, 75, 91, 97, 99, 143, 207; US Naval Intelligence 157; Radio Research Station Program 262; Security Group 115, 301; Sixth Fleet 323–4; USS Belmont 260; USS Cochino 112–17, 135; USS Georgetown 260; USS Jamestown 260; USS Liberty 260, 263–4; USS Muller 260; USS Oxford 260; USS Pueblo 260, 264; USS Stickleback 143; USS Tusk 114–15; USS Valdez 260, 605; USS Vincennes 408
USM-49 (US sigint base in Turkey) 303
Vampire (UK intercept unit) 474, 534
‘Vasiley’ (KGB officer) 232–4
Vass, Sir Douglas 423
Vassall, John 226, 238
Vatican 52
Venona project (intercepted Russian messages) 445–6; and Anglo-American collaboration 72, 78–80; and British Commonwealth 85–8; exploitation of reprinted pages 74–5; and exposure of agents 80–8; extreme secrecy of 73, 77–8; first code-breaks 75–6; and global sigint 90, 94, 98; and Manhattan Project 76; size and importance of 72–3; Soviets alerted to work on 73, 80–1
Vernon, Mike 422, 423
Viehoff (Germany) 50
Vienna 169, 170–1, 172, 372, 373, 375, 376
Vienna Summit (1961) 180
Vietnam 153, 167, 168, 178, 203, 376, 446
Vietnam War 123, 243, 252, 269, 271–2, 277, 279–80, 298, 356, 387
Virgin 545
Vladivostok 129
Voice of Egypt (radio station) 156
Wait, Dave 385–6
Wal Bin Chang 153
Waldegrave, William 429
Walker, John 264, 377, 384, 447
Walker, Walter 165, 166
War Office 22
War on Terror 533, 539–40
Warsaw Pact 114, 244, 245, 247, 248, 251, 253, 257–8, 319, 321, 369, 402, 465
Washington 7, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 47, 57, 64, 74, 77, 82, 83, 90, 92, 96, 97, 99, 101, 102, 111, 119, 121, 143, 151, 157, 203, 205, 212, 243, 253, 292, 325, 329, 335, 355–6, 381, 413
Watchkeeper 450 drone 536
Watergate House (London) 15–16
Watergate scandal (1973) 4, 279, 288, 290, 293, 297, 298, 325–6, 356
Wavendon Manor (radio station, Buckinghamshire) 49
weapons of mass destruction (WMD) 516, 520, 523, 526, 528–31
Weatherill, Bernard 459
Weinberger, Casper 441
Weisband, William 80–1, 169
Welchman, Gordon 25, 26, 27, 43, 57, 61, 64, 65, 362–3, 364, 387
Wenger, Joseph 42, 53, 79, 95, 243
West Germany 345, 442, 447–9, 455–6
West Irian 167
West, Lord 544
West, Nigel 88
Western Union 240
Whaddon Hall (Buckinghamshire) 23, 57, 181
Wharfe, Ken 483
White, Ray 501
White, Sir Dick 142, 176, 181, 187, 225, 241–2, 243, 245, 246, 264, 285–6, 353, 354, 364, 453
Whitelaw, Willie 404, 426, 427
Wieck, George 214
Wiesbaden (Germany) 158
Wigg, George 227–8, 240
Wilkes, Detective Sergeant 378
Wilkinson, Peter 206
Williams, Sir Anthony 392–3
Wilson, Edmund 42, 54, 57, 68, 576
Wilson, Harold 225; and Anglo-US relations 356–7; antagonism towards the press 239, 242; and Chevaline project 440; and Cyprus problem 325, 329; and Diego Garcia 338; fascinated and terrified by intelligence and espionage 3, 168, 226–7, 357; and Radcliffe Committee 239–40; and Skynet 438; and U-2 flights from Cyprus 295–6; and Vietnam War 277
Wilson, Jim 292
Wilson, Richard 527
Winnifrith, John 418
Winterbotham, Frederick 35, 354
Wolfenden, Jack 383
Woodward, Admiral Sandy 402–3, 407, 408, 410–11
Wormwood Scrubs prison 238, 385–6
Wreford-Brown, Christopher 404–5
Wright, Georgina 317
Wright, Peter 216, 223, 224, 267, 363, 492, 538, 587–8
Wyllie, Sean 490
Y services (armed forces listening units) 26–7, 33–5, 63, 68, 103, 111, 117, 411
Yarallakos (Cyprus) 320, 328
Yardley, Herbert O. 38
Yemen 148, 163–4
Yom Kippur War (1973) 277, 290–5, 320, 337, 387
York, Duchess of 482
Young, Courtney 86
Yugoslavia 256, 257, 284, 471–5, 503, 512, 534
Yunnan (China) 151
‘Yuri’ (KGB officer) 231–3
‘Zhora’ (Weisband’s code name) 80–1
Zimmermann, Phil 490–1
Zimmermann Telegram (1917) 15
Zinnia (missile-detection system) 322–3
Zinser, Aguilar 519–20
Zionist movement 97, 109
Zircon project (GCHQ sigint satellite) 415, 438, 442–3, 449–50, 458–61
Acknowledgements
On 9 December 1993 the Lord Chancellor, Lord Mackay of Clashfern, introduced the Intelligence Services Act in the House of Lords. He declared that the declassifying of hitherto highly secret documents on intelligence was part of the new accountability of the British intelligence services. Lord Mackay also emphasised that government had ‘released a number of previously withheld government records’ as an important component of the new commitment to openness – and planned to release more: ‘Things have moved on. The climate has changed. Greater openness has gained momentum.’ Initially, I greeted these words with profound scepticism. However, by the late 1990s it was clear that the authorities had been as good as their word. Remarkable historical materials were making their way to the National Archives at Kew, where they could be viewed by ordinary mortals. A number of Whitehall departments, most notably the Treasury under Gordon Brown, were very generous in releasing material on GCHQ. Overwhelmingly, the present study is based on this newly declassified material. Without this commendable shift towards openness and the generous new release of hitherto highly secret documents on GCHQ by many departments of state, this book would not have been possible.
Because the work stretches back over more than a decade, I happily find myself in the debt of a wide array of individuals and institutions, and it is a pleasure to have the opportunity to offer my thanks here. For legal reasons I have chosen not to interview former British officials; however, I have occasionally spoken to ‘friends and allies’, and indeed ‘rivals’, overseas. The study has been compiled from open sources, and no classified material has been utilised. In a sense it is no more, and no less, than a summation of the documents about GCHQ that the various authorities have chosen to place in the public domain. Errors, of course, remain entirely my own, and given that I am writing about a secret agency from unsecret sources, there are likely to be more than a few. Those who wish to write to me with comments or corrections are most welcome, and I can be reached at [email protected] or at the Department of Politics and International Studies, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL.
Many academic friends and colleagues have guided me to documents or commented on early findings. I would particularly like to thank David Alvarez, Peter Catterall, Philip Davies, Stephen Dorril, David Easter, David Edgerton, Geoffrey Elliott, Ralph Erskine, Rob Evans, John Ferris, M.R.D. Foot, Stevyn Gibson, Roy Giles, Michael Goodman, Chris Grey, David Hamer, Michael Handel, Michael Herman, Peter Jackson, Rhodri Jeffreys-Jones, Matthew Jones, Sheila Kerr, Paul Lashmar, Julian Lewis, W. Scott Lucas, Paul Maddrell, Sir David Omand, Martin Rudner, Len Scott, Mark Seaman, Michael Smith, David Stafford, Andy Sturdy, Stephen Twigge, Wesley K. Wark, Donald Cameron Watt and John W. Young. I am also fortunate to enjoy the company of a number of very talented research students and research fellows whose input has been invaluable.
On a project such as this, the assistance of departmental record officers and official historians is especially important. I would like to thank the many individuals who have declassified material for me, allowed me sight of documents, or simply explained the meaning of documents to me. I would like to thank Christopher Simpson at the Attorney General’s Office; Alan Glennie, Brian Hogan and Shumailla Moinuddin at the Cabinet Office; Gill Bennett, Lynsey Hughes, Janet James, Penny Prior, Duncan Stewart, Stuart Taylor and Stephen Twigge at the Foreign and Commonwealth Office; Iain Goode, Simon Marsh and Steve Roper at the Ministry of Defence; Rosemary Banner, Ashley Britten, Darren Creamer, Francis Houston, Kate Jenkins and Sean Molloy at the Treasury; Patrick Driscoll at Treasury Solicitors. Ray Nolan at the Ministry of Defence needs to be singled out for a special mention, having tirelessly reviewed no fewer than 166 files for me. Tessa Stirling, the head of the Historians and Openness Unit at the Cabinet Office, has been notably generous with her time, allowing me to inspect additional material on site at the Cabinet Office.
I have enjoyed kind assistance with my many queries from the GCHQ historians at Cheltenham, including the current incumbent and his immediate predecessor, whom I shall refer to here only as the mysterious ‘M’. For much of the duration of this project the GCHQ historian was the late Peter Freeman, who was always encouraging, and I regret he did not see its completion. Chris Wilson in the GCHQ press office has been helpful with more recent queries. The archivists of SIS and MI5 have also assisted at various points. David Hatch, the historian at NSA’s Center for Cryptologic History, has also been kind in answering questions.
Armies of archivists and librarians – tireless in their efforts – have extended their kindness, and cannot all be named here. In Washington, I would like to mention Nicholas Scheetz at the Special Collections Center, the Lauinger Library at Georgetown University; and Lia Apodocia and Jeffrey M. Flannery at the Library of Congress together with Dane Hartgrove, Will Mahoney, Kathy McCastro, Ed Reese and the legendary late John E. Taylor at NARA. Above all it is the staff of the National Archives (Public Record Office), overworked and often confronted with an irascible researcher, but unfailingly courteous and helpful, who have facilitated this book. The University of Warwick has provided a friendly environment during the years over which this study was completed, and also hosts the wonderful Modern Records Centre, under the direction of Helen Ford, with its collection of GCHQ trade union materials. The Warwick Institute of Advanced Study provided a constant stream of visiting fellows and research colloquia with their fresh inspirations. I would like to thank the Director, Margot Finn, and her colleagues for all their kindness.
Early research was begun under the auspices of a British Academy Large Grant in 2003 which funded lengthy trips to the United States, Australia and Canada. Lee, Al and Della offered a happy home in Rock Creek Park while I was working in Washington. University House at ANU was a wonderful home in Canberra, and the Canadian Association for the Study of Intelligence and Security has made each visit to Ottawa a joy. The American dimension was also made possible by an earlier American Studies Fellowship supported by the American Council of Learned Societies, the British American Studies Association and the Fulbright Programme. Most importantly, a year of study leave supported by the University of Warwick allowed the book’s completion.
There are a few individuals to whom I owe a particularly heavy debt of gratitude. My literary agent, Andrew Lownie, deserves special thanks for his faith in this project and for his unique sense of timing. Richard Johnson, Martin Redfern and his colleagues at HarperCollins have been especially supportive and forbearing during a process that has taken longer than we had hoped. Robert Lacey, David Havilland and Barry Holmes have run an expert eye over advanced drafts. Matthew Aid, Christopher Andrew, Peter Hennessy and Cees Wiebes have offered crucial assistance and constant inspiration. Above all, I owe an enormous debt to my family for their encouragement over the years. My brother James cast his critical eye over the final draft. My children, Nicholas and Harriet, deserve special thanks for their wonderful musical distractions and theatrical diversions during the book’s progress. As ever my wife Libby offered boundless love, support and sound advice on a project that seemed to have no end.
Richard J. Aldrich
March 2010
By the same author
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