Suggested Reading
The individual biographies of these four admirals and their contemporaries are listed in the bibliography. I particularly recommend Thomas B. Buell, The Quiet Warrior: A Biography of Admiral Raymond A. Spruance (Boston: Little, Brown, 1987), and John B. Lundstrom, Black Shoe Carrier Admiral: Frank Jack Fletcher at Coral Sea, Midway, and Guadalcanal (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2006).
More recent titles of note include James D. Hornfischer, Neptune’s Inferno: The U.S. Navy at Guadalcanal (New York: Bantam, 2011), a gripping saga of the full Guadalcanal campaign; Craig L. Symonds, The Battle of Midway (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), which is a powerful narrative of the first six months of the war; and Barrett Tillman, Enterprise: America’s Fightingest Ship and the Men Who Helped Win World War II (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2012), a gritty tale of the “Big E.”
Other classics include Andrew Roberts, Masters and Commanders: How Four Titans Won the War in the West, 1941–1945 (New York: Harper, 2009); Evan Thomas, Sea of Thunder: Four Commanders and the Last Great Naval Campaign, 1941–1945 (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2006); and Gordon W. Prange, At Dawn We Slept: The Untold Story of Pearl Harbor (New York: Penguin, 1991).
Also by Walter R. Borneman
Rival Rails: The Race to Build America’s Greatest
Transcontinental Railroad
Polk: The Man Who Transformed the Presidency and America
The French and Indian War: Deciding the Fate of North America
14,000 Feet: A Celebration of Colorado’s Highest Mountains (with Todd Caudle)
1812: The War That Forged a Nation
Alaska: Saga of a Bold Land
A Climbing Guide to Colorado’s Fourteeners (with Lyndon J. Lampert)
Praise for Walter R. Borneman’s
THE ADMIRALS
“The first book to deal with the four admirals together, focusing on their intertwined lives, friendships, and rivalries…. A very well-crafted book.”
—John Lehman, Washington Post
“In his superbly reported new book, historian Walter R. Borneman tackles the essential question of military leadership: What makes some men, but not others, able to motivate a fighting force into battle?”
—Tony Perry, Los Angeles Times
“Engagingly written and deeply researched…. Mr. Borneman makes it easy to understand the complex series of maneuvers and counter-maneuvers at Leyte Gulf… which is not always the case with accounts of the battle.”
—Andrew Roberts, Wall Street Journal
“A brilliant, intriguing, and important book…. In The Admirals Borneman not only presents balanced mini-biographies of his four principal subjects but also gives an overview of the evolution of the navy from the late nineteenth to mid-twentieth centuries and provides fascinating details about the naval, political, and diplomatic aspects of World War II.”
—Timothy J. Lockhart, Virginian-Pilot
“Borneman demonstrates comprehensive command of published and unpublished sources, fingertip understanding of the period, and a polished writing style in this unique collective biography of the four men who ‘with a combination of nimble counsel, exasperating ego, studied patience, and street-fighter tactics’ shaped the modern U.S. Navy to win World War II at sea.”
—Publishers Weekly
“Borneman deftly manipulates multiple narrative strands and a wealth of detail. He vividly fleshes out the numerous vain, ambitious men vying for power at the top and examines their important decisions and lasting ramifications. An accomplished, readable history lesson.”
—Kirkus Reviews
“They were completely different in temperament and personality, but the U.S. Navy’s four five-star admirals in World War II shared a sense of vision, devotion, and courage. Walter Borneman has written a rousing tale of victory at sea.”
—Evan Thomas, author of The War Lovers
“The Admirals is a masterpiece of research and storytelling, narrative history at its absolute finest. A vivid, action-packed portrait of four remarkable American giants.”
—William Doyle, author of A Soldier’s Dream, Inside the Oval Office, An American Insurrection, and A Mission from God
“Walter Borneman’s The Admirals is an epic group portrait of Nimitz, Halsey, Leahy, and King. Not since the heyday of Samuel Eliot Morison has a historian painted such a fine portrait of the five-star admirals who helped America beat Japan during the Second World War. Highly recommended!”
—Douglas Brinkley, Professor of History at Rice University and author of The Wilderness Warrior
“This is Walter Borneman at his best. The portrait of the forgotten admiral, Leahy, is worth the whole book. But there’s scarcely a page where a reader won’t learn something unexpected, and occasionally shocking.”
—Thomas Fleming, author of Time and Tide
Appendixes
A. Comparative Ranks of Commissioned Officers in U.S. Military Services
Pay Grade Navy Rank Comparative Rank for Army, Air Force, and Marines
O-1 Ensign Second Lieutenant
O-2 Lieutenant Junior Grade First Lieutenant
O-3 Lieutenant Captain
O-4 Lieutenant Commander Major
O-5 Commander Lieutenant Colonel
O-6 Captain Colonel
O-7 Rear Admiral (lower half) Brigadier General
O-8 Rear Admiral (upper half) Major General
O-9 Vice Admiral Lieutenant General
O-10 Admiral General
O-11 Fleet Admiral General of the Army/Air Force
Note: The rank of commodore—one star and equivalent in grade to a brigadier general in the army—was abolished by the U.S. Navy in 1899, in part because it caused confusion with the title of commodore, the latter bestowed on the commanding officer of a squadron of ships no matter what his rank. Consequently, during the pre–World War II period, naval officers jumped from captain to rear admiral (two stars). The rank of commodore was temporarily reestablished during World War II, with similar resulting confusion, especially as to convoy commodores. In 1981, the U.S. Navy broke the rank of rear admiral into rear admiral lower half (one star) and rear admiral upper half (two stars).
B. World War II–Era General Protocols for Naming U.S. Navy Ships
Battleships (BB) States of the Union
Aircraft carriers (CV, CVL) Famous battles; famous predecessor ships
Escort carriers (CVE) Sounds and bays; battles of World War II
Heavy cruisers (CA) Cities and towns
Light cruisers (CL) Cities and towns
Destroyers (DD) U.S. Navy/Marine officers and enlisted men
Destroyer escorts (DE) U.S. Navy/Marine officers and enlisted men
Submarines (SS) Fish and marine creatures
Minelayers (CM, DM) Historic monitors of the U.S. Navy
Minesweepers (AM) Birds
Oilers (AO) Rivers
Transports (AP) Presidents; famous Americans; historic places
Hospital ships (AH) Words of comfort
Ammunition ships (AE) Volcanoes
Cargo ships (AK) Stars; counties of the United States
Tugboats (ATA, ATF) Indian tribes
C. Comparative Tonnages and Armaments of Selected Ships
Ship Name Commissioned Length/Beam/Tons Type Decommissioned Key Armaments
USS Cincinnati (C-7) June 16, 1894 306 feet/42 feet/3,200 tons Protected cruiser April 20, 1919 1 × 6-inch guns; 10 × 5-inch guns
USS Oregon (BB-3) July 15, 1896 348 feet/69 feet/10,288 tons Battleship October 4, 1919 4 × 13-inch guns
USS Decatur (DD-5) May 19, 1902 250 feet/23.5 feet/420 tons Destroyer July 20, 1919 2 × 3-inch guns; 2 × 18-inch torpedo tubes
Mikasa (Japan) March 1, 1902 432 feet/76 feet/15,000 tons Battleship September 20, 1923 4 × 12-inch guns
USS Plunger (SS-2) September 19, 1903 64 feet/12 feet/109 tons Submarine November 3, 1905 1 × 18-inch torpedo tube
USS Shaw (DD-68) April 9, 1917 315 feet/31 fe
et/1,100 tons Destroyer June 21, 1922 4 × 4-inch guns; 3 × 21-inch torpedo tubes
USS New Mexico (BB-40) May 20, 1918 624 feet/97 feet/32,000 tons Battleship July 19, 1946 12 × 14-inch guns
USS Saratoga (CV-3) November 16, 1927 880 feet/106 feet/33,000 tons Aircraft carrier August 15, 1946 91 aircraft
USS Augusta (CA-31) January 31, 1931 600 feet/66 feet/9,000 tons Heavy cruiser July 16, 1946 9 × 8-inch guns
HMS Prince of Wales (53) January 19, 1941 745 feet/112.5 feet/44,000 tons Battleship December 10, 1941* 10 × 14-inch guns
USS Arizona (BB-39) October 17, 1916 608 feet/97 feet/31,400 tons Battleship December 7, 1941* 12 × 14-inch guns
Bismarck (Germany) August 24, 1940 823.5 feet/118 feet/46,000 tons Battleship May 27, 1941* 8 × 15-inch guns
Akagi (Japan) March 25, 1927 855 feet/103 feet/42,000 tons Aircraft carrier June 5, 1942* 91 aircraft
USS Haddo (SS-255) October 9, 1942 312 feet/27 feet/2,400 tons Submarine February 16, 1946 10 × 21-inch torpedo tubes (6 fore, 4 aft)
Yamato (Japan) December 16, 1941 839 feet/128 feet/80,000 tons Battleship April 7, 1945* 9 × 18-inch guns
New Jersey (BB-62) May 23, 1943 888 feet/108 feet/45,000 tons Battleship February 8, 1991** 9 × 16-inch guns
* Sunk
** Final Time
D. Chiefs of Naval Operations, 1915–1947
The position of chief of naval operations (CNO) was established at the urging of Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels in 1915. Initially, it was a coordinating and advisory role. Viewed as a “first among equals” of the bureau chiefs, he reported to the secretary of the navy. The CNO slowly evolved into a stronger position until Ernest J. King’s appointment on March 26, 1942. Simultaneously CNO and commander in chief, U.S. Fleet, King was the operational head of all U.S. Navy and Marine forces.
Name Dates of Service U.S. Naval Academy Class
William S. Benson May 11, 1915–September 25, 1919 1877
Robert E. Coontz November 1, 1919–July 21, 1923 1885
Edward W. Eberle July 21, 1923–November 14, 1927 1885
Charles F. Hughes November 14, 1927–September 17, 1930 1888
William V. Pratt September 17, 1930–June 30, 1933 1889
William H. Standley July 1, 1933–January 1, 1937 1895
William D. Leahy January 2, 1937–August 1, 1939 1897
Harold R. Stark August 1, 1939–March 26, 1942 1903
Ernest J. King March 26, 1942–December 15, 1945 1901
Chester W. Nimitz December 15, 1945–December 15, 1947 1905
E. Commanders in Chief, U.S. Fleet, 1936–1945
The fleet structure of the United States Navy has changed many times throughout its history. General Order of December 6, 1922, combined the Atlantic and Pacific Fleets into one United States Fleet and delineated the main body of ships as the Battle Fleet, assigned to the Pacific, and a lesser complement termed the Scouting Fleet, assigned to the Atlantic. (These were subsequently called the Battle and Scouting Forces.) There were also independent commands for coastal forces (called for a time Base Force), ships deployed in the Far East (long called the Asiatic Fleet, although its numbers were very small by comparison), and submarines.
General Order 143, issued on February 1, 1941, abolished the United States Fleet; reinstated the Atlantic, Pacific, and Asiatic Fleets; and designated a commander in chief for each. Executive Order 8984 of December 18, 1941, reestablished the post of commander in chief, United States Fleet, and gave the position operational command of all naval forces: the Atlantic, Pacific, and Asiatic Fleets and all coastal forces. Roosevelt appointed King to this position. When King relinquished command on October 10, 1945, the position of commander in chief, United States Fleet, was abolished, and its responsibilities were assumed by the chief of naval operations.
Name Dates of Service U.S. Naval Academy Class
Arthur J. Hepburn June 24, 1936–February 1, 1938 1897
Claude C. Bloch February 1, 1938–January 6, 1940 1899
James O. Richardson January 6, 1940–January 5, 1941 1902
Husband E. Kimmel February 1, 1941–December 16, 1941 (Pacific Fleet) 1904
Ernest J. King February 1, 1941–December 30, 1941 (Atlantic Fleet) 1901
Ernest J. King December 30, 1941–October 10, 1945 1901
F. World War II–Era U.S. Battleships
More than just historical curiosity, this table clearly shows the World War I era of hasty battleship construction; the dramatic, almost-two-decade pause between the wars because of the Washington treaty restrictions; and then the pre–World War II rush of renewed construction. By the time the Iowa-class giants slid down the ways, the aircraft carrier had established its dominance as the navy’s principal capital ship.
Ship Name (No.) Commissioned–Decommissioned Disposition
Utah (BB-31) August 31, 1911–September 5, 1944 Sunk at Pearl Harbor
Wyoming (BB-32) September 25, 1912–August 1, 1947 Scrapped
Arkansas (BB-33) September 17, 1912–July 29, 1946 Sunk as postwar target
New York (BB-34) April 15, 1914–August 29, 1946 Sunk as postwar target
Texas (BB-35) March 12, 1914–April 21, 1948 Memorial, San Jacinto, TX
Nevada (BB-36) March 11, 1916–April 21, 1948 Sunk as postwar target
Oklahoma (BB-37) May 2, 1916–September 1, 1944 Sunk at Pearl Harbor*
Pennsylvania (BB-38) June 12, 1916–August 29, 1946 Sunk as postwar target
Arizona (BB-39) October 17, 1916– Memorial, Pearl Harbor
New Mexico (BB-40) May 20, 1918–July 19, 1946 Scrapped
Mississippi (BB-41) December 18, 1917–December 17, 1956 Scrapped
Idaho (BB-42) March 24, 1919–July 3, 1946 Scrapped
Tennessee (BB-43) June 3, 1920–February 14, 1947 Scrapped
California (BB-44) August 10, 1921–February 14, 1947 Scrapped
Colorado (BB-45) August 30, 1923–January 7, 1947 Scrapped
Maryland (BB-46) July 21, 1921–April 3, 1947 Scrapped
Washington (BB-47) Never commissioned Sunk as target, 1924
West Virginia (BB-48) December 1, 1923–January 9, 1947 Scrapped
North Carolina (BB-55) April 9, 1941–June 27, 1947 Memorial, Wilmington, NC
Washington (BB-56) May 15, 1941–June 27, 1947 Scrapped
South Dakota (BB-57) March 20, 1942–January 31, 1947 Scrapped
Indiana (BB-58) April 30, 1942–September 11, 1947 Scrapped
Massachusetts (BB-59) May 12, 1942–March 27, 1947 Memorial, Fall River, MA
Alabama (BB-60) August 16, 1942–January 9, 1947 Memorial, Mobile, AL
Iowa (BB-61) February 22, 1943–March 24, 1949** Memorial, Los Angeles, CA
New Jersey (BB-62) May 23, 1943–June 30, 1948** Memorial, Camden, NJ
Missouri (BB-63) June 11, 1944–February 26, 1955** Memorial, Pearl Harbor
Wisconsin (BB-64) April 16, 1944–July 1, 1948** Memorial, Norfolk, VA
* Subsequently raised, stripped of guns and superstructure, and sold for scrap, but sank en route to San Francisco from Pearl Harbor, May 17, 1947.
** The four Iowa-class battleships were later variously recommissioned for action related to Korea and the Middle East.
Source: Adapted from “The Battleships” at www.navy.mil/navydata/ships/battleships/bb-list.asp
Note: Hull numbers BB-49 through BB-54 were assigned and hulls were laid down, but they were scrapped in 1923 under the terms of the Washington treaty.
G. World War II–Era U.S. Aircraft Carriers (CV1–CV21)
Early aircraft carrier construction was done on a ship-by-ship basis. Langley was a conversion from a collier; Lexington and Saratoga were initially laid down as battle cruiser hulls; Ranger was a transition from these to the four carriers that saved the Pacific—Yorktown, Enterprise, Wasp, and Hornet. Then came the Essex-class carriers. It might well be argued that these twenty-four carriers, quickly mass-produced with only minor modifications, were the determining factor in wi
nning the war in the Pacific. Japanese industry simply could not match this outpouring of construction. Note: Do not confuse carriers bearing the same name. The first Lexington (CV-2), Yorktown (CV-5), Wasp (CV-7), and Hornet (CV-8) were sunk and replaced with Essex-class namesakes.
Ship Name (No.) Commissioned–Decommissioned Disposition
Langley (CV-1) March 22, 1922–February 27, 1942 Sunk off Indonesia
Lexington (CV-2) December 14, 1927–May 8, 1942 Sunk at Coral Sea
Saratoga (CV-3) November 16, 1927–July 26, 1946 Sunk as postwar target
Ranger (CV-4) June 4, 1934–October 18, 1946 Scrapped
Yorktown (CV-5) September 30, 1937–June 7, 1942 Sunk at Midway
Enterprise (CV-6) May 12, 1938–February 17, 1947 Scrapped
Wasp (CV-7) April 25, 1940–September 15, 1942 Sunk at San Cristóbal Island
Hornet (CV-8) October 20, 1941–October 26, 1942 Sunk at Santa Cruz Islands
Essex (CV-9) December 31, 1942–June 20, 1969 Scrapped
Yorktown (CV-10) April 15, 1943–June 27, 1970 Memorial, Charleston, SC
Intrepid (CV-11) August 16, 1943–March 15, 1974 Memorial, New York, NY
Hornet (CV-12) November 20, 1943–May 26, 1970 Memorial, Alameda, CA
Franklin (CV-13) January 31, 1944–February 17, 1947 Scrapped
Ticonderoga (CV-14) May 8, 1944–September 1, 1973 Scrapped
Randolph (CV-15) October 9, 1944–February 13, 1969 Scrapped
Lexington (CV-16) February 17, 1943–November 8, 1991 Memorial, Corpus Christi, TX
Bunker Hill (CV-17) May 25, 1943–July 9, 1947 Scrapped
Wasp (CV-18) November 24, 1943–July 1, 1972 Scrapped
Hancock (CV-19) April 15, 1944–January 30, 1976 Scrapped
The Admirals Page 53