by Henry Kamen
92. There were three documents: a contract between Maximilian and Philip, an undertaking by Philip, and an undertaking by Maximilian.
93. All details of Philip's movements come from Vandenesse, II, 403ff.
94. Philip to Maurice, Augsburg, 16 May 1551, AGS:E leg.646 f.109: ‘in nos studio et amore, quem sub adventum nostrum ad Germaniam, multis magnisque argumentis deprehendimus, gratiam habemus maximam’.
95. Constancio Gutiérrez, Trento: un concilio para la unión (1550–1552), 3 vols. Madrid 1981, III, 398.
96. ‘Plusieurs festins avec force dames’: Vandenesse, IV, 4.
97. Calvete de Estrella, Rebelión, II, 455.
98. Another source lists forty-four galleys. The naval commander Bernardino de Mendoza, brother to the scholar-diplomat Diego Hurtado de Mendoza, was no relation to the later ambassador of Philip to England.
99. ‘Un banquet et force dames’: Vandenesse, IV, 6.
100. AGS:E leg.646 f.226.
101. Soriano, in Alberi, ser.1, vol.III. Cf the comments of Merriman, III, 366, who like others accepts the Venetian view.
102. Dietari de l'Antich Conseil Barceloní, IV, Barcelona 1895, p.227. The prince resided in the palace of the duke of Cardona.
103. Philip to Maximilian, from Barcelona, HHSA Spanien Hofkorrespondenz, karton 1, mappe 4 f.14.
3. Soldier and King 1551–1559
1. To duke of Savoy, Cambrai, 9 Aug. 1557, BL Add.28264 f.26.
2. See the report on her made by Francisco de Borja to Philip in 1554: Monumenta Historica Societatis Iesu: Borgia, Madrid 1908, III, 161.
3. Philip to Maximilian, 16 Sept. 1551, HHSA Spanien Hofkorrespondenz, karton 1, mappe 4 f.23.
4. Philip to Maximilian, 25 Sept. 1551, ibid. f.27.
5. Vandenesse, IV, 7.
6. Philip to Maximilian, 29 Sept. 1551, HHSA Spanien Hofkorrespondenz, karton 1, mappe 4 f.29.
7. Philip to Maximilian, 2 Jan. 1552, ibid. f.39.
8. Philip to Maximilian, 5 Apr. 1552, ibid. f.44.
9. Braudel, II, 923.
10. Ruy Gómez to Eraso, 19 May 1552, AGS:E leg.89 f.131. Maurice was killed in a campaign in Germany in 1553.
11. Philip to Andrea Doria, Madrid, 12 June 1552, ibid. leg.92 f.106.
12. Zayas to Pérez, 8 Nov. 1552, in González Palencia, I, 135.
13. Juan Vázquez to Pérez, 26 Nov. 1552, ibid., II, 443.
14. ‘Minuta de la carta que se escrivió al Principe de Bruselas’, 20 Mar. 1553, AGS:E leg.98 ff.118–23.
15. Philip to Charles, 17 Mar. 1553, ibid. ff.88–93.
16. Philip's first wife Maria was also his cousin, daughter of the marriage of Charles V's youngest sister Catherine to the king of Portugal.
17. ‘Memorial que embio Francisco Duarte de lo que le dixo Nicolas Nicolai’, Sept. 1553, AGS:E leg.98 f.274.
18. G. Constant, ‘Le mariage de Marie Tudor et de Philippe II’, Revue d'Histoire Diplomatique, 26 (1912), p.36.
19. CSP, Spain, XI, 404, 290.
20. The relationship existed prior to Philip's departure from Spain in 1554, and could only have commenced after his return in 1550: cf. González de Amezúa, I, 393. William of Orange in his Apology stated that there were several children by the marriage: cited in Muro, p.243.
21. Cabrera, III, 367: ‘ella tanto se ensalzó por amarle mucho’. On the secret document, Forneron, I, 9. Forneron identifies her as the sister of the marquis of Astorga.
22. According to the Venetian ambassadors Badoero and Soranzo, cited in González de Amezúa, I, 407. Forneron I, 11, identifies one of the ladies as Catalina Laínez, married to a Spanish courtier.
23. González de Amezúa, I, 405.
24. Philip to Egmont, AGS:E leg.808 f.11.
25. Cabrera, I, 43.
26. CSP, England and Spain, XII, 316.
27. John Elder, The Copie of a Letter sent in to Scotlande, London 1554.
28. Muñoz, p.99. The Venetian ambassador claimed that she spoke Spanish fluently (CSPV, VI, ii, p.1055), but the testimony of Muñoz is firmer. It is noteworthy that Elizabeth also spoke some Spanish.
29. In Charles's system of government, the ‘regent’ was a senior official who represented his country's interests in the king's council.
30. Figueroa to Charles, Winchester, 26 July 1554, CODOIN, III, 519. Papal investiture of Naples was conceded in October: cf. Braudel, II, 935 n.184. Vandenesse, IV, 15, dates the Figueroa ceremony to the actual day of arrival, Friday the twentieth, on board Philip's ship. This seems less likely than Figueroa's own account.
31. Details in Constant, ‘Le mariage de Marie Tudor’, pp.244–60.
32. Instruction of 16 Feb. 1554 to Egmont, AGS:E leg.808 f.19.
33. Muñoz, p.71.
34. AGS:CR leg.33 f.8.
35. Soriano to Senate, 1559, CSPV, VII, 330.
36. Philip to Juana, 2 and 18 Sept. 1554, AGS:E leg.808 ff.38, 40.
37. González Palencia, I,180.
38. Though Amadis was from Brittany, his deeds were performed in Wales.
39. Muñoz, pp.113, 97.
40. Ibid., pp.106–7.
41. Ibid., pp.118, 108, 77.
42. Ibid., pp.119, 106.
43. CSPV, VI, ii, p.1055.
44. Ruy Gómez to Charles V, London, 27 and 30 July 1554, AGS:E leg.808 f.148.
45. Sandoval, p.428. ‘Though the queen,’ he adds, ‘was a saint, she was ugly and old, and the king handsome and young.’
46. Cf. D. M. Loades, ‘Philip II and the Government of England’, p. 190, in C. Cross et al., eds, Law and Government under the Tudors, Cambridge 1988.
47. What follows is summarised from Philip's letter to Charles, Sept. 1554, AGS:PR leg.55, doc. 27 (iii).
48. Loades, ‘Philip II’, p. 189.
49. Bartolomé de las Casas, De Regia Potestate, ed. L. Pereña, J. M. Pérez Prendes, et al., Madrid 1969, p.lii.
50. Philip to Charles, 16 Nov. 1554, AGS:E leg.808 f.54.
51. Instructions to Eraso, AGS:PR leg.55, doc. 27 (iv).
52. Milhou, p.4.
53. Ibid., pp.37, 39–41. The enslavement of Caribbean islanders had been prohibited by the New Laws of 1542; but it was permitted by Philip for Puerto Rico in 1547, and then for Hispaniola in 1558.
54. Philip to Charles, Valladolid 2 Sept. 1553: ‘El asiento de las licencias de los esclavos se a deshecho porq ha parescido a algunos theologos q era cargo de conciencia’, AGS:E leg.98 f.263.
55. Milhou, p.47.
56. In 1560, precisely.
57. Philip's general support for Las Casas is emphasised by Fray Alonso Fernández, Historia Eclesiastica de nuestros tiempos, Toledo 1611, pp.29–31.
58. CODOIN, LXX, 227.
59. Cited Lewis Hanke, Aristotle and the American Indians, London 1959, p.83.
60. CSP, Spain, XIII, 138–9.
61. Cited in Kamen, ‘Toleration and Dissent’, in Crisis and Change, p. 14.
62. Castro did not live to take up his post. He accompanied Philip to Flanders, and died in Brussels in 1558.
63. D. M. Loades, Politics and the Nation 1450–1660, London 1979, p.236.
64. CSPV, VI, ii, 1065.
65. Loades, Politics, p. 193.
66. Philip to Maximilian, 24 Apr. 1555, HHSA Spanien Hofkorrespondenz, karton 1, mappe 4 f.137.
67. CSPV, VI, i, 177.
68. Cabrera, I, 24.
69. Gachard, Retraite et mort, Introduction, 80–103.
70. In Strada, I, 12, a version given also in Motley, p.57, Charles is described as standing, leaning for support on the prince of Orange.
71. Sandoval, p.479.
72. Gachard, Retraite et mort, Introduction, 98, demonstrates that Philip spoke in French. The dramatic version in Motley, p.58, that he spoke in Spanish, is untrue.
73. Gachard, Retraite et mort, Introduction, 142. In a detailed ‘Relation de los documentos hechos sobre el Vicariato’, in AGS:E leg.646 f.252, Perrenot insisted that the king must never make use of the privilege, and must not even admit that such a
document existed.
74. Cf. Van Durme, p.188.
75. Gachard, Retraite et mort, Introduction, 133.
76. Gachard, Carlos V, p.34.
77. CSPV, VI, ii, 863.
78. Ibid., 1179.
79. Ibid., 1063.
80. ‘All sinew, little flesh … born to command’: Cabrera, I, 166.
81. King to Savoy, 26 July 1557, AGS:E/K 1490 no.40.
82. The account that follows is based largely on Philip's original (and hitherto unknown) military despatches, in BL Add.28264. For a splendid but thoroughly hostile account of Philip at St Quentin see Motley, pp.89–99. In Merriman, IV, 11, Philip is caricatured as writing letters instead of doing battle.
83. BL Add.28264 ff.10–12.
84. Ibid. f.17.
85. Ibid. f.19.
86. My italics: ibid. ff.26–7.
87. Savoy to king, 8 Aug. 1557, AGS:E/K 1490 no.65.
88. Savoy to Eraso, 8 Aug. 1557, ibid. no.67b.
89. Philip to Charles, 11 Aug. 1557, ibid. no.72.
90. La Guerre de 1557 en Picardie, St Quentin 1896, p.237.
91. His remark to the Venetian ambassador Suriano: CSPV, VI, ii, 1348.
92. Who died that week, of gout, aged only fifty-one.
93. CSPV, VI, ii, 1345.
94. Suriano to Senate, 24 Oct. 1557, ibid., 1354. Suriano's letters make clear that the retreat after St Quentin was a decision imposed by the council. Nearly all biographers present it, by contrast, as a cowardly decision by Philip.
95. Philip to Ferdinand, 29 Aug. 1557, San Quentin, CODOIN, II, 493–6.
96. Bedford to William Cecil, quoted in La Guerre de 1557 en Picardie, p.324. Philip, according to his own letters, ordered the evacuation of women and children from the town in order to save them from the soldiers. Motley, p-97, presents this as an act of cruelty.
97. Philip to Juana, 2 Sept. 1557, AGS:E/K 1490 no.82b.
98. Cabrera, I, 243.
99. King to Savoy, Brussels, 8 Nov. 1557: BL Add.28264 f.37.
100. Philip to Juana, 1 May 1558, AGS:CJH leg.34 f.519.
101. Braudel, II, 942 notes it as ‘a turning point in western history’.
102. BL Add. 28264 ff.41–4.
103. Vandenesse, IV, 34.
104. AGS:CR leg.78 no.38, ‘los retratos q Su Alteça tiene en su camara’. The portrait of Philip is now in the Prado.
105. Gachard, Carlos V, pp.38, 93.
106. Feria to Philip, London 11 Apr. 1559: AE:CP, MD vol.233 f.112.
107. Braudel, II, 948.
108. Weiss, V, 454.
109. Ibid., 491.
110. Cortes antiguos, V, 717.
111. Memorials and letters of Valdés to king, AGS:E leg.129 ff. 110–12, 128.
112. King to Juana, Antwerp, 5 June 1558, ibid. ff.178–83; to Valdés, 6 Sept. 1558, ibid., f.116.
113. King to Juana, Brussels, 20 Feb. 1559, ibid. leg.138 f.23.
114. Sébastien de l'Aubespine, bishop of Limoges, to king François II, Ghent, 27 July 1559, in Paris, pp.49–54.
115. Weiss, V, 594.
116. Ibid., 606.
117. Ibid., 631.
118. Badoero to Senate, Brussels, 1 Mar. 1556, CSPV, VI, i, 363. Viglius's figure is confirmed by the calculations of Alastair Duke, Reformation and Revolt in the Low Countries, London 1990, p.71.
119. Strada, I, 75.
120. Gachard, Carlos V, translated from a corresponding volume in French, prints extracts from the reports by Federico Badoero (1554–7) and Michele Suriano (1557–9). Though Gachard accepts everything the ambassadors say, much in their reports is both tendentious and incorrect.
121. In the Museo de Bellas Artes, Bilbao.
122. Suriano to Senate, 1559, CSPV, VII, 331.
123. Cf. Boyden, p.66: ‘Philip II was a shy, passive, sedentary man’. Boyden creates this image in order to support his view of Ruy Gómez as the real driving force.
124. Challoner to queen, 3 Aug. 1559, CSP, Foreign 1558–9, 503.
125. At the time of Fox's appointment, Philip was unaware of a denunciation of the philosopher made to the Inquisition in faraway Seville. Fox never took up his appointment: he was drowned at sea on his way to Spain in 1560.
126. Checa, p.87.
127. A good overview by J. K. Steppe, ‘Mécénat espagnol et art flamand au XVIe siècle’, in Splendeurs d'Espagne, I, 247–82.
128. Paris, p.64.
129. A subject currently being studied by Professor Friedrich Edelmayer of Vienna.
130. I prefer not to give credence here to the lively incident, narrated by Motley, p.113, in which the king lost his temper with the prince of Orange at the quayside.
131. Challoner to Cecil, 27 Aug. 1559, CSP, Foreign 1558–9, p.503.
4. The Cross and the Crescent 1559–1565
1. Serrano, III, ciii–cv.
2. Carrasco, passim.
3. For the petitions, Danvila y Collado, II, 281–5.
4. Cited in H. Kamen, ‘Spain’, in B. Scribner, R. Porter and M. Teich, eds, The Reformation in National Context, Cambridge 1993, pp.206, 210.
5. AGS:E leg.137 ff.12, 15.
6. Bratli, p.184.
7. Gachard, Don Carlos, p.49.
8. ‘Were our father a heretic we would carry the faggots to burn him’: CSPV, VI, ii, no.1067. The phrase was clearly a traditional one, not peculiar to either the pope or the king. ‘If any converso were wicked,’ wrote a Castilian royal secretary in 1449, ‘I would be the first to bring the wood to burn him’: cited in Benzion Netanyahu, The Origins of the Inquisition, New York 1995, p.409.
9. Vandenesse, IV, 68.
10. Letter from fray Joan Izquierdo to prince Philip, Barcelona 14 July 1552, AGS:E leg.310.
11. CSPV, VII, 132.
12. Alvaro Huerga, El proceso de la Inquisición de Sevilla contra el maestro Domingo de Valtanás, Jaén 1958, p.9. Constantino was the preacher Constantino Ponce de la Fuente (see Chapter Two), whose bones were disinterred by the Inquisition after his death.
13. Philip to Valdés, 23 Aug. 1560, Favre vol.29 f.4. These figures are based in part on William Monter, ‘Heresy executions in Reformation Europe, 1520–1565’, in O. P. Grell and B. Scribner, Tolerance and Intolerance in the European Reformation, Cambridge 1996.
14. Bishop of Pamplona to Granvelle, 23 May 1560, BP MS.II/2291 f.128.
15. Autumn of 1552, AGS:E leg.92 f.81.
16. Favre vol.2 f.32.
17. Cited Kamen, Phoenix, p.87.
18. Bataillon, pp.723–4, notes 31 and 32; Kamen, Phoenix, pp.416–18.
19. ‘Lo que parece convernia proveerse’, AGS:E leg.129 f.112.
20. King to Inquisition, 6 Sept. 1558, ibid. f.116.
21. Cited in A. Sicroff, Les Controverses des statuts de pureté en Espagne du XVe au XVIIe siècle, Paris 1960, p.138 n.184.
22. The original statement by Siliceo, who was a fanatical anti-Semite, occurs in ‘Sobre el Estatuto de limpieza de la Sancta Iglessia de Toledo’, BNM MS.13267 f.281.
23. Cf. Braudel, II, 802–26. Also R. Bonfil, Gli ebrei in Italia nell'epoca del rinascimento, Florence 1991.
24. Abravanel to king, 27 May 1558, AGS:CJH leg.34 f.432.
25. Bishop of Málaga to king, 10 June 1559, AGS:E leg.137 f.307.
26. J. C. Domínguez Nafría, La Inquisición de Murcia en el siglo XVI, Murcia 1991, p.32.
27. AGS:E leg.809 ff.75–7, order of 29 May 1555, Hampton Court.
28. Cited in Kamen, ‘Limpieza’, in Crisis and Change, p.330, n.25.
29. Gil Fernández, p.470.
30. Eboli, a town in Naples, was given to Ruy Gómez by Philip in 1559. Gómez later sold the estate, and bought lands in Pastrana, which earned him the title of duke of Pastrana in 1572.
31. Badoero, in Gachard, Carlos V, pp.42–4.
32. Muro, pp.37–40.
33. Boyden, p.27.
34. I deliberately avoid the term ‘faction’ (used by some historians) for a grouping which, on the evidence available, had no clear cohesion and
was certainly not factious. Some recent studies in Spanish on a so-called ‘Ebolist party’ are wholly unconvincing.
35. Gachard, Carlos V, p.41. The study by Boyden gives a very good perspective on the role of Ruy Gómez.
36. This modifies the presentation in Lagomarsino, pp. 24–6, where Eraso is shown as joining Gómez in 1556. The correspondence of Gómez with Eraso in AGS:E leg.89 shows that the two had their heads together long before.
37. Gómez to Eraso, Toro, 22 Sept. 1552, AGS:E leg.89 f.120.
38. Gómez to Eraso, Toro, 25 Nov. 1552, ibid. f.123.
39. The file on the Chancery is ibid. f.139.
40. Gómez to Eraso, Madrid, 4 Apr. 1552, ibid. f.129.
41. Maltby, p. 151 ff.
42. The bulk of consultations over Flanders in 1563 was with Alba: AGS:E leg.143.
43. Lagomarsino, p.28.
44. See also the sensible comments by Boyden, pp. 114–15.
45. Lagomarsino, p.30, states that ‘Philip was fundamentally flexible at the start of his reign’.
46. Gonzalo Pérez to Granvelle, 16 Apr. 1560, Toledo, BP MS.II/2291 f.103.
47. Weiss, V, 643, 672.
48. King to council of State, 1565, AGS:E leg.98.
49. Juana to king, 9 June 1559, ibid. leg.137 f.213.
50. Marginal comment on letter from Juana, 14 July 1559, ibid. f.227. The passage has been transcribed erroneously by various recent historians.
51. Ortiz to government, 15 Oct. 1558, AGS:CJH leg.34 f.437. Ortiz earlier that year handed to the treasury a now celebrated Memorial on finance.
52. Braudel, II, 966.
53. Ibid., 973–87.
54. Paris, p.555.
55. Tiepolo to Sena, 29 Jan. 1560, CSPV, VII, 147.
56. Tiepolo, in Alberi, ser. I, vol. V, 71.
57. Secretary Courteville, cited in Gachard, Don Carlos, p.51.
58. Pérez to Granvelle, Toledo, 3 Oct. 1560, BP MS.II/2291 f.229.
59. Marqués de las Navas to Granvelle, Toledo, 4 Apr. 1560, ibid. f.88.
60. González de Amezúa, I, 210.
61. Report by Soranzo, in Alberi, ser.I, vol.V, 114.
62. Paolo Tiepolo, 1563, ibid., 63.
63. González de Amezúa, II, i, 43, 57.
64. Ibid., I, 430.
65. The architect will be referred to in this book simply as Juan Bautista, since his real surname is uncertain.
66. Rivera, p.62.
67. Ibid., p.294.