Harold

by Ian W. Walker

  4. Simeon of Durham – A History of the Church of Durham, tr. J. Stevenson (Lampeter, 1988), pp. 67–9 for Copsi and his gifts to Durham. DB Yorkshire, C36, 6N36 and 23N1, and DB Lincolnshire, 36: 3–4 and CK28 for Copsi’s lands. Stevenson, Simeon: Church of Durham, pp. 65, 66–7, W.M. Aird, ‘St Cuthbert, the Scots and the Normans’, Anglo-Norman Studies, XVI (1994), p. 9 for Durham and the Bishops but Kapelle, North, pp. 90, 98 for an alternative view. Stevenson, Simeon: Kings of England 1059 and 1061 for Tosti and King Malcolm.

  5. VER, p. 79, Aird, ‘St Cuthbert’, p. 4 n. 20 for Tosti’s justice. Liber Vitae Ecclesiae Dunelmensis, ed. J. Stevenson (London, 1841), p. 2 for Tosti and Godwine’s names, later almost obliterated by erasure, possibily after the Conquest. Okasha, Handlist, pp. 87–8 for the sundial inscription.

  6. JW 1058 for the Norwegian raid and DB Yorkshire, 1L1 for its effect. This devastation might also be due to William’s harrying of the North in 1069–70. ASC D 1061, JW 1061, VER, pp. 53–7 for Tosti’s visit to Rome. Stevenson Simeon: Kings of England 1061 for Malcolm’s raid. There is no real evidence for raids in 1058 or 1059 as mentioned by Kapelle.

  7. Kapelle, North, pp. 91–4, VER, p. 67, Kapelle, North, p. 88.

  8. Whitelock, Beginnings, pp. 44–5, Kapelle, North, pp. 17–19 and Stenton, A-S England, p. 390 n. 1. JW 1065, Stevenson, Simeon: Kings of England 1065 for this incident. ASW, No. 121 for Gospatric’s writ. Kapelle, North, p. 95. ASC C/D 1041, Stevenson, Simeon – Church of Durham, pp. 64–5, Kapelle, North, p. 25 for Siward.

  9. VER, pp. 55–7, ASC D 1067 and 1069 and Table 13.

  10. ASC Table 13, Kapelle, North, p. 95, MacAirt and MacNiocaill, Ulster 1054 for Dolfin as son of Thorfinn, ASW, No. 121.

  11. JW 1065, Stevenson, Simeon: Kings of England 1065, Kapelle, North, pp. 95–6.

  12. ASC C/D/E 1065, JW 1065, Stevenson, Simeon: Kings of England 1065, VER, p. 77, Kapelle, North, pp. 96–7 for the low assessment of the northern shires.

  13. DB Yorkshire entries. Kapelle, North, pp. 96–8, ASC C 1065 and VER, p. 79.

  14. ASC C/D/E 1065, VER, pp. 75–7, Kapelle, North, p. 98, P.J. McGurk and J. Rosenthal, ‘The Anglo-Saxon Gospel Books of Judith Countess of Flanders: Their Texts, Make-Up and Function’, Anglo-Saxon England, 24 (1995), p. 252.

  15. ASC C/D/E 1065, JW 1065.

  16. Stafford, East Midlands, p. 127, ASC Table 13, Kapelle, North, pp. 100–1, 108–9 for these men.

  17. VER, pp. 77, 81 for Tosti as Edward’s favourite. JW 1066, WP, p. 102 [4] for Harold’s position.

  18. ASC C/D/E 1065, JW 1065, VER, p. 77 for Lincolnshire. ASW, Nos 62 and 119 for Northamptonshire and Nottinghamshire. Also Appendix Two for Tosti’s earldom.

  19. ASC C/D/E 1065, VER, pp. 79, 81.

  20. ASC C 1065, JW 1065, VER, p. 79 all highlight the great efforts made to reach a compromise and the stubbornness of the rebels.

  21. VER, pp. 79–81. The author, even though sympathetic to Tosti makes clear his opinion that he did not believe the charge.

  22. VER, pp. xxvi–xxvii, lxii–lxiii.

  23. Stafford, Unification, p. 97 for this suggestion but Barlow, Edward, p. 238 rejects this possibility.

  24. VER, pp. 81–3, ASC D 1065.

  25. ASC C/D 1065 and JW 1065. The date of 28 October for this may have been used as it was the date of the council which decided the matter. VER, pp. 81–3 for Tosti’s exile following after his expulsion from the earldom. DB Hertfordshire, 1: 18 and DB Bedfordshire, 54: 3 for the forfeitures.

  26. VER, pp. 81–3 and JW 1065, DB Shropshire, 3d: 7 for this lawsuit.

  27. VER, pp. 83, 119, Barlow, Edward, pp. 244–5, WJ, p. 161, WP, p. 146 [6], 100 [4].

  28. WP, pp. 166–8 [9], VER, p. 77, Chibnall, Ecclesiastical History, p. 139.

  29. VER, p. 119, Barlow, Edward, pp. 245–6, Smith, ‘Stigand’, pp. 199–219 and Cooper, York, p. 26.

  30. Hooper, ‘Edgar the Atheling’, p. 204, Williams, ‘English Royal Succession’, pp. 166–7.

  31. ASC C/D 1065, ASC E 1066, JW 1066, VER, pp. 123–5. The latter gives the date as 4 January possibily because Edward died during the night between 4/5 January. Wilson, Bayeux, pl. 30. WP, p. 172 [10] for the deathbed bequest.

  32. Ungedruckte Anglo-Normannische Geschichtsquellen, ed. F. Liebermann (Strasburg, 1879), pp. 245–6. G. Garnett, ‘Coronations and Propaganda: Implications of the Norman Claim to the Throne of England in 1066’, TRHS, 5th Series, 36 (1986), pp. 91–116.

  CHAPTER EIGHT

  1. VER, p. 49.

  2. Wilson, Bayeux, passim, ASC C/D/E 1056 for Leofgar, P. Seaby, The Story of British Coinage (London, 1985), p. 43, and H. Grueber and C. Keary, English Coins in the British Museum (London, 1970), Anglo-Saxon Series, Vol. II, pls XXXI and XXXII for the coins. WP, p. 160 (41) and Chibnall, Ecclesiastical History, p. 199 for Norman views on Anglo-Saxon hair styles. G.R. Owen-Crocker, Dress in Anglo-Saxon England (Manchester, 1986), pp. 168–9 for moustaches and beards.

  3. VER, p. 49, Wilson, Bayeux, pls 19–20, ASC D/E 1066.

  4. VER, pp. 47–53.

  5. WP, p. 224 (38) and Stevenson, Malmesbury – Norman Kings, pp. 19–20 for the banner. Flor 1068, ASC C/D 1056, C/D/E 1063 & C/D/E 1066, WP, p. 202 (15), 104 (23).

  6. Seaby, Coinage, p. 43, Grueber and Keary, English Coins, p. xcvii, M. Dolley, Anglo-Saxon Pennies (London, 1970), pp. 29–30 and S. Keynes, ‘An Interpretation of the Pacx, Pax and Paxs Pennies’, Anglo-Saxon England, 7 (1978), pp. 170–1 for the meaning behind these coins. ASC C 1055, 1056 & 1058. ASC C 1065 and VER, pp. 79–83.

  7. WP, p. 156 [8] himself mentions Harold’s ‘sapientia’ or wisdom. ASC D1066.

  8. VER, pp. 48, 91, WP, pp. 102–4 [4–5], Bossanquet, Eadmer, pp. 6–7, VER, p. 81.

  9. WP, pp. 114 (24), 146 (26), 166 (29), WJ, p. 161.

  10. WP, pp. 100 [4], 102–6 [4–5].

  11. JW 1062, Swanton, Three Lives, pp. 100, 108–9 for Wulfstan. VER, p. 53 for Rome. Wilson, Bayeux, pl. 3 for Bosham. WC, p. 47 and Freeman, Norman Conquest, Vol. II, pp. 670–4 for Waltham.

  12. WC, pp. 31–3, Swanton, Three Lives, pp. 8-9, [3-40], Rogers, ‘Relic-List’, pp. 163–6.

  13. Williams, ‘Land and Power’, pp. 181–4, Fleming, Kings and Lords, pp. 84–5, 202–3.

  14. Barlow, English Church, p. 109, Douglas, William, pp. 170, 324 for Stigand as ‘destined for deposition’. Stenton, A-S England, p. 659 for the suggestion that the prompting or his deposition came from the Papacy.

  15. WP, p. 234 (38), Barlow, English Church, pp. 78–81, Smith, ‘Stigand’, pp. 199–218, Brooks, Canterbury, p. 306 and ASW, pp. 572–3 for Stigand. ASW, Nos 13 and 14, pp. 157–8.

  16. Loyn, ‘Harold’, p. 32 for his ‘odd’ marital circumstances. WC, p. 55, Swanton, Three Lives, p. 34, Chronica Johannis de Oxenedes, ed. H. Ellis (London, 1859), p. 292 and Freeman, Norman Conquest, Vol. III, pp. 790–3 for Edith. DB Kent, C4 for ‘Harold’s concubine’. C. Fell, Women in Anglo-Saxon England and the Impact of 1066 (London, 1984), pp. 138–40, Douglas, William, pp. 15, 37–44 and Bates, William, p. 22 for different marriage customs on the Continent.

  17. ASC D 1067 (recte 1068) for Harold’s sons. Stafford,East Midlands, p. 127 for such alliances. Williams, ‘Land and Power’, p. 176 and Clarke, English Nobility, pp. 273–9 for Edith’s landholdings.

  18. Fell, Women, p. 89, Williams, ‘Land and Power’, p. 176 for this link. J.R. Clark-Hall, A Concise Anglo-Saxon Dictionary (Cambridge, 1960), p. 50, H. Sweet The Student’s Dictionary of Anglo-Saxon (Oxford, 1896), p. 25, and Fell, Women, p. 67 for female beauty. DB Suffolk 4: 17, DB Suffolk, 1: 61, DB Suffolk, 16: 10, DB Warwickshire, 6: 10 for these different women. E. Searle, ‘Women and the Legitimization of Succession at the Norman Conquest’, Proceedings of the Battle Conference on Anglo-Norman Studies, 1979 (1980), pp. 167–9 emphasizes the real issues behind what had appeared to Southern St Anselm, p. 185, as ‘a strange and passionate romance’. P.H. Sawyer, ‘1066–1086: A Tenurial Revolution?’ in P.H. Sawyer (ed.), Domesday Book: A Reassessment (London, 198
5), p. 78 for Alan’s occupation of Edith’s lands.

  19. DB Cambridgeshire, Hertfordshire, Buckinghamshire for her as Faira, fair, or Pulchra, beautiful. DB Suffolk for her as Dives, rich. DB entries recording her landholdings are summarized by Clarke, English Nobility, pp. 273–9. DB Cambridgeshire, 14: 66 for Grimbald, and Fell, Women, p. 97 for the gospel book. Oxenedes, p. 292 for this donation. Stafford, Queens, p. 40, Stafford, East Midlands, pp. 127, 151, and Stafford, Unification, pp. 68, 76–7 for Aelfgifu of Northampton.

  20. Swanton, Three Lives, p. 34 and WC, p. 55 for Edith. Stafford, Queens, pp. 40, 49 and Stafford, Unification, pp. 76–8 for Cnut’s marriages.

  21. JW 1066 and Freeman, Norman Conquest, Vol. III, pp. 638–40 for Queen Alditha. Stevenson, Malmesbury – Norman Kings, p. 71 for Harold, son of Harold. Maund, Ireland, pp. 133–9 for Alditha’s first marriage. M. Meyer, ‘Women’s Estates in Later Anglo-Saxon England: The Politics of Possession’, Haskins Society Journal, 3 (1992), p. 120 for the suggestion of no marriage. Stafford, Unification, p. 77 where Cnut’s second wife, Emma, claimed this about her son Hardecnut in 1035.

  22. WP, p. 230 (38) and Chibnall, Ecclesiastical History, p. 137 for the Norman bride and JW 1066 for Alditha.

  23. DB Somerset, 1: 14 and 16. Flor 1068 for Godwine, son of Harold.

  24. ASC 1067 (recte 1068) and 1069, Flor 1068 and 1069 for Harold’s sons. VER, p. 23 for Edith at Wilton. Swanton, Three Lives, p. 118 for Gunnhild. Freeman, Norman Conquest, Vol. III, pp. 754–7 for Harold’s children.

  25. ASC 1053, WP, p. 204 (15), VER, p. 83 for Gytha. Clarke, English Nobility, pp. 164–9 for Godwine’s lands.

  26. ASC C/D 1056, Rogers, ‘Relic-List’, pp. 163, 166, King, ‘Ealdred’, pp. 127–9 and J.L. Nelson, ‘The Rites of the Conqueror’ in J.L. Nelson Politics and Ritual in Early Medieval Europe (London, 1986), pp. 389–95.

  27. Swanton, Three Lives, pp. 100, 108–9, and Mason, St Wulfstan, pp. 65–7, 100–4.

  28. DB Middlesex, 9: 1. Williams, ‘King’s Nephew’, pp. 327–43.

  29. ASC C/D 1065, Wilson, Bayeux, pls 2, 4, 9, 14, Whitelock, Beginnings, pp. 91–2, DB Herefordshire, 25: 9 for hunting. DB Surrey, 11: 1, C.H. Haskins, ‘King Harold’s Books’, EHR, XXXVII (1922), pp. 398–400, R.M. Wilson, The Lost Literature of Medieval England (London, 1970), p. 69, L. Cochrane, Adelard of Bath (London, 1994), p. 53, J.A. Green, The Government of England under Henry I (Cambridge, 1986) for hawks.

  30. VER, p. 23 for Edith, Green, Henry I, pp. 158–9 for literacy.

  CHAPTER NINE

  1. ASC C/D 1065

  2. ASC E 1066, Wilson, Bayeux, pls 30–1, JW 1066 for Harold as sub-regulus. Mason, St Wulfstan, p. 3, Garnett, ‘Coronations’, p. 98 and Nelson, ‘Rites’, pp. 393–5 for the validity of Harold’s consecration which caused difficulties for William’s claim. WJ, p. 161, WP, p. 146 [6] and Wilson, Bayeux, pls 30–1 and p. 138 nn. where the reversal of the death and burial scenes is interpreted as implying haste. ASC C/D 1066 for word of William’s invasion.

  3. Nelson, ‘Rites’, pp. 389–95.

  4. WP, p. 146 [6] and Wilson, Bayeux, pl. 31 for Harold’s consecration contrasting with JW 1066. ASC C/D/E 1058 and 1059, JW 1062 and Swanton, Three Lives, p. 105 for Stigand and Ealdred as consecrators respectively. ASC C/D/E 1066 and WP, p. 220 for William’s consecration by Ealdred.

  5. WP, p. 165, Bosanquet, Eadmer, p. 8, WP, p. 150 [7] and Wilson, Bayeux, pls 35–9 for the Norman preparations.

  6. Swanton, Three Lives, p. 109, M. Dolley, The Norman Conquest and the English Coinage (London, 1966), pp. 37–8, Barlow, Feudal Kingdom, p. 76, Douglas, William, p. 183, Kapelle, North, pp. 101, 105. D. Whitelock, ‘The Dealings of the Kings of England with Northumbria in the Tenth and Eleventh Centuries’ in P. Clemoes (ed.), The Anglo-Saxons (London, 1959), p. 88 and B. Wilkinson, ‘Northumbrian Separatism in 1065–1066’, BJRL, 23 (1939), pp. 504–26 and Stafford, Unification, p. 99.

  7. Swanton, Three Lives, p. 109, JW 1066, ASC C/D 1066.

  8. ASW, No. 71, pp. 284–5, Wilson, Bayeux, pl. 31, Bernstein, Mystery, pp. 37–50 for parallel illustrations.

  9. Galbraith, Domesday Book, pp. 175–7, Garnett, ‘Coronations’, pp. 91–116, Stafford, Unification, p. 99, EHD II, No. 35, p. 461-2 and No. 77, pp. 644–6. There exists only one slip in Domesday Book where DB Hampshire, 1: 13 admits Harold’s reign. EHD II, No. 33, p. 461 and No. 36, p. 462 and Brown, Norman Conquest, No. 174, p. 146.

  10. JW 1066, DB Hampshire, 1: 12–14 and DB Gloucestershire: 1, 3–5.

  11. Grueber and Keary, English Coins, pp. 460–74, Hill, Atlas, maps 221, 224 and 225, Dolley, Coinage, pp. 11–12, Dolley, A-S Pennies, pp. 29–30 and H.R. Loyn, Anglo-Saxon England and the Norman Conquest (London, 1962), p. 124.

  12. EHD II, No. 223, p. 964 (Abingdon Chronicle) and D. Knowles, C.N.L. Brooke and V. London, The Heads of Religious Houses, England and Wales, 940–1216 (Cambridge, 1972), p. 24 for Ealdred. Liber Eliensis, ed. E.O. Blake (London, 1962), p. 169, Knowles et al., Heads, p. 45 for discussion on a dispute over the date of Wulfric’s death which nevertheless makes it clear Thurstan was appointed by Harold.

  13. ASW, No. 62, pp. 262–5 for an indication that Tosti ruled Northamptonshire which was later to belong to Waltheof. ASC D 1066 for the first mention of Waltheof as an earl. DB Hampshire, D11. DB Bedfordshire, 53: 20, 54: 3. ASC D/E 1065 gives 28 October for King Edward’s agreement to the terms given by the Northumbrian rebels and JW 1065 adds that Tosti was exiled after 1 November. JW 1065 and VER, p. 81 both confirm that Edward’s health declined from this time onward. F.S. Scott, ‘Earl Waltheof of Northumbria’, Archaeologia Aeliana, 4th Series, 30 (1952), pp. 158–60 correctly dismisses the possibility that William appointed Waltheof but fails to consider Harold, whose nine month reign provided sufficient time for such an appointment. The fact that Domesday Book records Waltheof as an earl Tempore Regis Edwardi probably merely reflects the inexactitude of its record.

  14. Gaimar, L’Estorie des Engles, ed. T.D. Hardy and C.T. Martin (London, 1888), p. 222, K. Mack, ‘The Staller: Administrative Innovation in the Reign of Edward the Confessor’, Journal of Medieval History, 12 (1986), pp. 123–34 for Marleswein as a man holding lands similar in extent to known stallers. Clarke, English Nobility, pp. 322–4 for the lands.

  15. Barlow, English Church, passim. Keynes, Regenbald, pp. 185–222 for Regenbald, Douglas, William, pp. 290, 292 and Mack, ‘The Staller’, pp. 123–34, for the stallers, and A. Freeman, The Moneyer and the Mint in the Reign of Edward the Confessor 1042–1066 2 vols (Oxford, 1985), pp. 27–40 for the moneyers.

  16. WJ, p. 165, JW 1066, ASC D/E 1063, WP, p. 102 [4].

  17. ASC C/D 1066, M. Biddle ‘Seasonal Festivals and Residence: Winchester, Westminster and Gloucester in the Tenth to Twelfth Centuries’, Anglo-Norman Studies, VIII (1985), pp. 51–72.

  18. ASC C/D 1066, JW 1066, F. Stevenson and C.B.F. Walker, Halley’s Comet in History (London, 1985), p. 57, Wilson, Bayeux, pl. 32, WJ, p. 163, WP, p. 208 (36).

  19. ASC C/D 1066, JW 1066, DB Hampshire, 1: 14 and 5, and 9: 2 for Tosti’s lands on the Isle of Wight. Ibid. records nine estates held by Tosti, all in the extreme west of the island, while DB Sussex lists only one and DB Kent none.

  20. ASC C/D 1066, JW 1066, ASC C/D 1066, WP, p. 154 [7].

  21. ASC C/D 1066, JW 1066, Galbraith, Domesday Book, p. 176, Hill, Atlas, maps 179 and 181 combined, reveal the extent of these holdings, C.W. Hollister, Anglo-Saxon Military Institutions on the Eve of the Norman Conquest (Oxford, 1962), p. 122 and Hooper, ‘Some Observations’, p. 22 for the fleet.

  22. ASC C/D/E 1066, JW 1066, Hardy and Martin, Gaimar, p. 219, DB Lincolnshire 1: 65, 30: 1 for Tosti’s lands and Ibid. 36: 3 for Copsi’s lands.

  23. ASC C 1066, JW 1066, WP, p. 154 [7], DB Norfolk, 10: 76 and 77. F.M. Stenton, ‘St Benet of Holme and the Norman Conquest’, EHR, XXXVII (1922), pp. 227, 233 and Hooper, ‘Some Obsevations’, pp. 24–5, DB Sussex, 5: 2. Douglas, William, p. 186.

  24. WJ, p. 165, WP, pp. 156 [8], 186 [12], Brown, N
orman Conquest, No. 171, pp. 134–44.

  25. Douglas, William, p. 188, Barlow, Feudal Kingdom, p. 77, Brown, Normans, pp. 147–8.

  26. WP, p. 154 [7], Genealogical Table 1 for Harold and Swein. Annales Corbiensis in Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Scriptores, ed. G.H. Pertz (Hannover, 1857), Vol. III, p. 6 and Wissolik, ‘Saxon Statement’, p. 71.

  27. WP, pp. 152–4 [7], Douglas, William, pp. 187–8, Stenton, A-S England, p. 586, Brown, Normans, pp. 148–9, Barlow, Feudal Kingdom, pp. 78–9.

  28. Morton, ‘Pope Alexander’, pp. 362–82], H.E.J. Cowdrey, The Age of Abbot Desiderius (Oxford, 1983), pp. 118–22 for the political scene.

  29. EHD II, No. 81, pp. 649–50 for the Penitential Ordinance, Douglas, William, p. 187, Bates, William, p. 65, Brown, Normans, p. 148, Barlow, Feudal Kingdom, p. 79, Stenton, A-S England, p. 586 for other views. Stevenson, Malmesbury – Norman Kings, p. 17 for Harold’s lack of response.

  30. WP, pp. 158–160 [8], Bates, William, p. 65 for this date. There exists no clear date for this event. Douglas, William, pp. 193, 398 places it on 12 September, but based on a later source. Douglas, William, p. 193, Bates, William, p. 66, Stenton, A-S England, p. 588.

  31. ASC C 1066, JW 1066, N. Hooper ‘The Anglo-Saxons at War’ in S.C. Hawkes (ed.), Weapons and Warfare in Anglo-Saxon England (1989), p. 195, Douglas, William, p. 192, Brown, Normans, p. 144, Barlow, Feudal Kingdom, p. 80, Stenton, A-S England, p. 588, R.A. Brown, ‘The Battle of Hastings’, Proceedings of the Battle Conference on Anglo-Norman Studies, 1980 (1981), p. 7, J. Gillingham, ‘William the Bastard at War’ in C. Harper-Bill et al., Studies, pp. 156–7 disagrees with this opinion. If Douglas’ dating is correct, it was in fact less than two full months.

  32. ASC C/E 1066, DB Essex, 6: 9.

  33. JW 1066. ASC C 1014.

  CHAPTER TEN

  1. ASC D 1066.

  2. B. and P. Sawyer, Medieval Scandinavia (Minneapolis, 1993), pp. 54–8 and P.H. Sawyer, ‘The Wealth of England in the Eleventh Century’, TRHS, 5th Series, 15 (1965), pp. 145–64.