Stunned by the generosity of His Holiness, Charles humbly thanked him and vowed he would take the matter under advisement, after hearing from God. “Ah my son,” said the Pope, “God has already spoken, and he orders you to invade. He also says you are to give Henry, this.” With that, the Pope quietly passed Charles the papal Bull of Excommunication. Charles objected that he had not the right by God to deliver such a decree, but the Pope’s insistence was not one to be refused. He explained to Charles that, after much reflection, God had answered his prayers, and decreed that Henry was unworthy to serve England any longer. His people needed freedom from spiritual tyranny and political oppression at the hands of wicked rule by a wayward King and his whore. Charles quietly accepted his duty before bowing and leaving the room.
6.2 Spanish Decisions
The Emperor took his time arriving home surveying progress and overseeing military strategy against the Ottoman Empire before returning home in January 1538. His first order of business upon returning home was to order his English Ambassador Chapuys back home in January 1538. Chapuys delegation returned home under the pretense of family need, to which Henry readily agreed with the understanding that his absence would be six weeks at most depending on weather and travel accommodations. Upon his immediate arrival back home he was immediately summoned to Charles great room for a private meeting with his master. In truth, Charles notified him of the Pope’s Bull of Excommunication and the possible invasion plans. Chapuys replied, carefully, that England was a broken nation and that by invading as soon as the seas would allow (later that spring and summer of 1538) the King would no doubt have God’s blessing. Further, Henry had been strengthening his naval defenses and where possible attempting to develop his fortifications against possible invasion. The King was in private concerned about being attacked over his religious policies though he was adamant genuinely he was right, and would never openly confess to such high concerns.
Nevertheless, he cautioned, the Emperor should not underestimate the possibility of meddling by the French forces, whose full support Henry had, mostly thanks to the great whore. The French were well prepared thanks to the shrewdness of King Francis. French arms in the region far outnumbered those of overstretched Spain and, although the Ambassador was confident in the skill of his country’s generals, Spain lacked in foot soldiers, and their knowledge of vital details concerning French supplies was based on information nearly a year old and from spies whose information was shaky at best.
In private, the Ambassador was torn. His loyalty lay with his own land but he had doubts about taking on the burden that invading and occupying the English could become. Under Spanish rule they would prove poor subjects and would most assuredly rebel, even if promised a return to Catholicism. The country had only just recovered from the rebellion a year before and was in no mental, physical, or economic state to revisit the past, as much as the rest of Europe desired it. His post had taught him a lot about the English people and, the way he saw it, they were pretentious, ostentatious, and haughty, but could also be generous and kind, as well as very resolute. This perception had changed at the Spanish Court once Anne became Queen, but his extensive service provided valuable outlets of information from both English and French agents. Charles would come to count on these reports heavily.
A formal war meeting was held to discuss logistics. Strategy was critical if their mission was to be successful. Out of fear of interception, Charles ordered all messages to his Holiness coded before delivery. If they were to invade, they needed at least another 20,000 troops and all the weapons and food supplies his ally was willing to provide. His advisers urged him to take caution in delivering the papal edict to Henry. The never-ending war with the Ottoman Empire had all but exhausted Spanish troops and supplies; they were doing all they could to hold their own at the borders of Europe.
Taking on the English would represent an entirely new series of challenges. England was an island country and Henry had wisely invested his inheritance (the part he did not manage to blow on court revelry) quite heavily on building his naval forces. The reality is that Spain did not have the resources available for so massive an undertaking. Even if Charles wanted to invade and the Vatican could support them, they were unprepared, at best.
Despite this, the council drew up the Declaration of War; all that it awaited was Charles’ signature. Chapuys remained consistent and cautious; he urged patience and prayer on the matter. After three days of restless contemplation, Charles decided to carry out the Pope’s order; however, so as to minimize the risk of an extended campaign, he considered also sending along an entire ship of gold plate, jewels, and a contract of an annual sum of 1 million pounds in current prices, to persuade Henry not to retaliate and to instead step down peacefully, in the interests of serving God. He could not afford an additional war with his already overstretched portfolio.
Upon further reflection on the matter, he then decided to have only the Papal Bull delivered, and not yet to formally declare war. He ordered a new peace treaty with the English, as a sign of good will. After all, he rationalized that God Himself must surely have mandated this decree, so how could a King, presented with so clear a papal edict, go against the will of God? Charles had managed to build up a vast empire with resources—though limited—that could be sucked dry if he were to proceed, but it would leave him vulnerable at a time he could little afford to be. Each council member was awoken and discreetly notified shortly thereafter. His advisors were able to breathe a sigh of relief for not being immediately overburdened with a second theatre of war.
The Papal Bull of Excommunication against Henry would be delivered by none other than Chapuys himself. Charles had ordered the Ambassador back to England on the next available ship, in late February 1538, cutting short his personal leave. It would take at least a week for the ship to reach England and possibly another three to four days to request the audience with the King to deliver the Bull. Henry had not been expecting the Ambassador back until sometime in the summer. Chapuys arrived at court, in session at Whitehall, two days after an exhausting journey. He had slept little, ate poor food that had left him in great intestinal distress, and his foot was throbbing from the early stages of gout. Despite all this, he changed in chambers set aside for his replacement and immediately went to Cromwell’s clerk to request an audience with Henry. Always the consummate diplomat, he refused to disclose the content of his visit, but insisted that it was urgent. His Excellency was told of an opening in the King’s calendar the following morning at 9 A.M. With that, Chapuys thanked the clerk and departed back to his chambers. He spent the remainder of the evening in prayer, both for his own country, and for the English people.
The morning of February 20th, Chapuys and his delegation greeted the King and Privy Councilors as they were discussing business. The chamber was generously decorated with lavish tapestries the King had received from all corners of the world, many of which remain today worth millions of dollars. Henry appeared to be in a genuinely cheerful mood, which only unsettled the Ambassador further. In his entire career, spanning close to thirty years of service, he had not once delivered a Papal Bull to a sitting King. He had known other diplomats who had had that “privilege” and recalled their reluctance and fear, which he now himself felt. Standing before the English, Chapuys removed both papers, and read the Bull of Excommunication. As he read aloud the words on the document, he could see Henry’s cheerful mood change rapidly to anger. Unsettled, he continued:
“Your most gracious and high majesty King Henry VIII of England, I do hereby declare the following Papal Bull of Excommunication from his Holiness Pope Paul III delivered to your person and council. His Holiness has asked that my master, the most gracious and high King Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, deliver this Papal Bull to you. You are hereby officially excommunicated from the Roman Catholic Church in all its rights, entitlements and distributions thereof, and separated both in this life and the next from the fello
wship of Christendom.”
6.3 A King’s Response
After reading out the Bull, Chapuys paused for a brief moment; and then was shocked as Henry burst into hysterical laughter, all the while cursing the Pope. He grabbed the Bull out of the Ambassador’s hand mockingly reading it aloud in Italian tone of sarcasm and using abusive language about its creators for his courtiers to laugh over. Shouts and laughter from the council members present, damning the Pope, were heard from around the table. Chapuys had expected a far more solemn and humble a response. He—again, mockingly—asked why the Pope could not have delivered it himself, and far sooner, and why did he feel it necessary to involve his “dear brother king, Charles”? After more laughter, Henry belittled the Pope’s masculinity and referred to him as a cowardly hyena, daring to do battle against a lion. Chapuys only replied that the Pope had directly tasked his master. He then went on to inform the English council of Spain’s intentions to renew a peace treaty and deliver the document to the King as instructed, to show the continuation of Spanish goodwill. After reading out the Bull, Chapuys was quick to tell Henry of the massive plate of gold and goods that Charles had sent reassuring his love for his majesty and their dear friendship with the English and he hoped that this delivery would not interrupt that continuing good faith.
With that, Henry thanked and dismissed him. He even made light of the situation, telling Chapuys to return that evening for a drink. The Ambassador graciously thanked the King, and left confused. Lord and Viscount Rochford at once departed to inform the Queen what had transpired. Neither of them found this funny, but instead rejoiced at Henry’s reaction to such a potentially damaging document.
Chapuys was right to have been conflicted. For years he had generously enjoyed Henry’s goodwill, far more so than any other Ambassador at court. He had been invited to seasonal festivals, christenings, and summer progress more often than any foreign diplomat had in their tenure. Perhaps most importantly, Henry had appeared to honor him with implicit trust. This rare honor allowed him to engage the highest levels of English government and society. Now, with Acts far beyond the realm of his control, he had in the course of less than ten minutes destroyed nearly thirty years of respect and admiration.
Later on the evening of the recital of the Bull, Chapuys had been invited into Henry’s private chambers to dine with him and discuss matters of “Spanish friendship” and a possible renewal of a trade treaty. The Ambassador managed to convince the King that his master was sincere about renewing and securing their alliance once more against the French. Charles was concerned over the continued occupation of French forces in Italian territory and wished to seek the English cooperation on the matter. Henry told him that he would take the matter under advisement but seriously asked why the Pope had not dealt with Archbishop Cranmer directly?
Why use an intermediary? Had not Henry appealed directly to him when his Great Matter was ongoing? Why the run-around? These were questions that the Ambassador was not privy to answer for he was not in attendance in the meeting between his master, the other Kings of Europe and the Italian Territories along with the Pope. Henry told the Ambassador before dismissing him that he would contemplate on the matter further and call for him in a few days after he had made a decision regarding a renewed alliance. Chapuys was cautious to tread lightly with the King when discussing matters of spiritual reputation regarding England and the rest of Europe. After a rather intense meal, the Ambassador was dismissed and he immediately requested a private audience with Cromwell in the minister’s chambers.
This meeting was highly irregular and should not have happened, given the official capacity both men held; however, their fondness for one another allowed this to be overlooked. The two men had an unstated understanding of one another’s convictions and confidences. The implications of that meeting, no matter what might have been said, would reverberate far more than either man might have expected at the time.
Henry was to take a few days to contemplate what actions to take in regards to Spain and its recent delivery of the Papal Bull.
After the King realized that Charles lacked the manpower and weapons to engage in another war while he was fighting the Ottomans. Should Henry decide to enter into Europe’s wars, Spain’s vast Holy Roman Empire would almost certainly be destroyed and broken into pieces. On the other hand, his own people had just overcome a rebellion, changes to ancient religious tenets, had an increase in taxes to deal with, and he longed to secure their affection for the Queen, and thus further secure his own heir. Upon careful review and after a heated meeting with his Privy Council, he decided against going on the offensive against Spain. He had matters closer to home to attend to, but there would yet come a time when Spain might reap what it had sewn.
Chapter 7
The Fall of Cromwell
The Queen, after recovering from the surprise of the situation, also laughed and reveled in the declaration. She ordered that Archbishop Cranmer and Tyndale be sent for immediately so the four could dine together to discuss how to turn this development to their advantage. The Boleyns sat down to discuss business after the servant left the room. While they enjoyed an extravagant luncheon together, the group was concerned over extended implications for the succession with the Queen in particular concerned that with this excommunication, would her children not be recognized by European Houses for marital alliances?
Cranmer believed there would be room for religious negotiations to take place to ease European comforts but it could pose a serious risk as the children grew older and these alliances became a concern. Tyndale was a little more pessimistic and expressed concern over the dynastic implications this would have on the House of Tudor and for the start of the Church of England. He posed how the group should handle the educational reforms now that Henry and effectively England itself had been excommunicated, what implications if any would this have? Boleyn as the experienced diplomat in the room posed both the pros and cons emphasizing more on the pros of the delivery. He took a different route ensuring the Queen that this only strengthened England’s positions in matters of state affairs by not bending to a corrupt tyrant and there were other refined countries who were recognizing spiritual awakenings in their own kingdoms that England could still do business with. They also still had France as a major ally due to King Francis intense hatred of Charles, so England would still continue to be a dominant European player, excommunicated or not. Anne felt genuinely relieved after their luncheon and thanked them all for their company as she took to walking and reading in the gardens afterwards with her ladies-in-waiting.
Henry’s excommunication had little, if any; substantive effect on religious reforms. On the domestic front, Cromwell continued closing monasteries at the King’s behest and in November 1537, the Cluniac House monastery, one of the larger monastic houses in the realm, had voluntarily handed over its lands and property to the King. This was viewed as a major victory to the reformist cause, but was done primarily out of an attempt at self preservation. It did however, set the voluntary standard for other monastic houses of ill repute to follow.
The house, located in Lewes in East Essex, decided it was better to give its property to the state rather than to see it being callously destroyed. The Cluniac Order, a Benedictine order from France, dates back to the early middle ages period, around the 11th Century. The order’s monasteries were commonly called Cluniac in Henry’s time and there were thirty-eight of these monasteries in both Scotland and in England.
After its deeds were handed over, Cromwell ensured the property itself was utterly destroyed and that what did remain was renovated for his son Gregory to use, which he called Lord’s Place. At the time of the confiscations, Anne had questioned Henry on why the house was targeted for dissolution when the Valor findings showed that it was one of the houses in good standing and that it had readily adapted to the Reformation. Henry told her to check with Cromwell, which she did. Initially the Queen was very puzzled a
nd concerned, fearful that there had been a grievous oversight or mistake by one of the minister’s clerks, and she was very conciliatory on the matter. When she asked Cromwell about the abbey she was genuinely shocked to discover that, indeed, no oversight had been made and that it had been Cromwell’s decision alone to submit the house to Henry for dissolution.
Enraged, Anne lectured Cromwell about the true cause for their reforms and warned him not to interfere in “her affairs” again. She passionately viewed those religious houses in good standing as adhering to the true principles of Christ; she not only wanted to keep them intact, but to promote them to the rest of the realm as models of compliance. Cromwell was attacking that very foundation. He had to be destroyed.
Thomas Cromwell was one of the most powerful Secretaries of State in England. His rise to power had been swift and methodical. By putting forth his friend Archbishop Cranmer’s theological resolution to the King’s Great Matter through his social network of reformist-minded friends he had secured his favor with the King. Cranmer suggested that the Great Matter was a matter of both theological and historical factors, in search of a solution based as much on legal and historical understanding as on clerical, and advised surveying the Universities in Europe to have them judge the matter instead of waiting out the Papal courts. Cromwell rejoiced that this simple solution would have Henry answerable to no mortal man, only his own understanding of God and his own logic and prerogatives as a secular ruler. Further, Cromwell helped design England’s break from the Catholic Church, allowing Henry to take complete and absolute power. Cromwell’s rise to power came with much envy and scorn from fellow courtiers who viewed him as unfit to be the King’s closest minister.
Had the Queen Lived: Page 22