by Mike Smith
31 Murray Last, ‘Contradictions in Creating a Jihadi Capital: Sokoto in the Nineteenth Century and Its Legacy’, African Studies Review, 56(2) (September 2013), pp. 1–20, on pp. 2–4.
32 Muhammad S. Umar, ‘Education and Islamic Trends in Northern Nigeria: 1970s–1990s’, Africa Today, 48(2) (Summer 2001), pp. 127–50, on p. 136.
33 Hiskett, Development, pp. 242–3.
34 Papers of Baron Lugard of Abinger, 1858–1945, MSS Brit. Emp. s.58, f. 6.
35 Lugard Papers, MSS Brit. Emp. s.58, ff. 9–10.
36 Lugard Papers, MSS Brit. Emp. s.57, f. 106.
37 Sir F.D. Lugard, The Dual Mandate in British Tropical Africa (Edinburgh and London, 1922), p. 617.
38 A.H.M. Kirk-Greene, ‘Lugard, Frederick John Dealtry, Baron Lugard (1858–1945)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004; online edn, October 2008, http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/34628.
39 Lugard Papers, MSS Brit. Emp. s.57, ff. 180–1.
40 F.D. Lugard, ‘An Expedition to Borgu, on the Niger’, Geographical Journal, 6(3) (September 1895), pp. 205–25.
41 Lugard Papers, MSS Brit. Emp. s.57, f. 182.
42 Michael Crowder, The Story of Nigeria (London, 1978), pp. 48–53.
43 Crowder, Story, p. 149.
44 Crowder, Story, pp. 133–5, 147–8, 151.
45 Crowder, Story, p. 164.
46 Lugard Papers, MSS Brit. Emp. s.62, f. 8b.
47 Scarbrough, ‘Goldie, Sir George Dashwood Taubman (1846–1925)’, rev. John Flint, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004; online edn, September 2013, http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/33441.
48 Lugard Papers, MSS Brit. Emp. s.57, f. 94.
49 Peter Cunliffe-Jones, My Nigeria: Five Decades of Independence (New York, 2010), p. 73.
50 Lugard, Dual Mandate, pp. 222–9.
51 Crowder, Story, pp. 173, 179.
52 D.J.M. Muffett, Concerning Brave Captains (London, 1964), pp. 43–51; Hogben, Introduction, pp. 212–14.
53 H.F. Backwell, The Occupation of Hausaland: 1900–1904 (Lagos, 1927), pp. 13–14.
54 Lugard Papers, MSS Brit. Emp. s.62, ff. 26–8.
55 Lugard Papers, MSS Brit. Emp. s.62, ff. 31–8.
56 Colonial Reports – Annual, N. Nigeria: 1900–1911 (London, HMSO), p. 85.
57 UNESCO, ‘Ancient Kano City Walls and Associated Sites’, http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5171/.
58 Colonial Reports, pp. 159–60.
59 Colonial Reports, p. 38.
60 Colonial Reports, pp. 91, 178.
61 Colonial Reports, p. 164.
62 Lugard Papers, MSS Brit. Emp. s.62, ff. 107–11.
63 Colonial Reports, pp. 365–74.
64 Lugard Papers, MSS Brit. Emp. s.65, ff. 27–8.
65 Lugard Papers, MSS Brit. Emp. s.63, ff. 156, 177.
2 ‘His Preachings Were Things that People Could Identify With’
1 The interrogation has been posted online at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ePpUvfTXY7w. Translation from Hausa to English was provided by Professor Abubakar Aliyu Liman of Ahmadu Bello University in Nigeria. Professor Liman felt the best translation of ‘boko’ in this instance was ‘Western education’, though others may have a wider interpretation of the word, such as Western deception.
2 Professor Liman felt Yusuf may have misspoken here and meant to use the word ‘astrology’, which has often been labelled un-Islamic.
3 Abdul Raufu Mustapha, ‘Ethnic Structure, Inequality and Governance of the Public Sector in Nigeria’, United Nations Research Institute for Social Development, Democracy, Governance and Human Rights Programme Paper No. 24, November 2006, p. 12.
4 Enrico Monfrini, ‘The Abacha Case’, in M. Pieth (ed.), Recovering Stolen Assets (Berne, 2008), pp. 41–2.
5 Mark Tran, ‘Former Nigeria state governor James Ibori receives 13-year sentence’, Guardian (UK), 17 April 2012; Estelle Shirbon, ‘Nigerian governor gave $15 million cash bribe in bag, court hears’, Reuters, 19 September 2013; ‘Nigeria: UK conviction a blow against corruption’, Human Rights Watch, 17 April 2012.
6 World Bank, ‘The World Bank in Nigeria 1998–2007: Nigeria Country Assistance Evaluation’, p. 69.
7 The World Bank report cited above said poverty had fallen to 54 per cent by 2004; the same report said ‘wide, long-standing regional disparities result in a poverty range from about 34 per cent in the southeast to about 67 per cent in the northeast’. World Bank calculations using data from 2009–10 put the poverty rate at 46 per cent based on evaluations of the cost of supplying basic needs for a household, according to information provided to me by the bank’s lead economist for Nigeria. Rapid population expansion, however, means that reductions in the poverty rate do not always translate into fewer people overall living in poverty.
8 Population Division of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat, ‘World Population Prospects: The 2012 Revision’, http://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/index.htm.
9 M.J. Smith, ‘Lagos at centre of Africa’s population boom’, Agence France-Presse, 30 October 2011.
10 Chinua Achebe, The Trouble with Nigeria (Essex, 1984), p. 1.
11 Toyin Falola and Matthew M. Heaton, A History of Nigeria (Cambridge, 2009), pp. 112–13.
12 Falola and Heaton, History, pp. 119–21.
13 Falola and Heaton, History, p. 150.
14 Michael Crowder, The Story of Nigeria (London, 1978), p. 271.
15 Crowder, Story, p. 277.
16 Falola and Heaton, History, pp. 153–4.
17 Independent Task Force on Terrorist Financing Sponsored by the Council on Foreign Relations, ‘Update on the Global Campaign against Terrorist Financing’, 15 June 2004, pp. 20–2.
18 Sir Ahmadu Bello, My Life, p. 229.
19 Crowder, Story, p. 298.
20 Falola and Heaton, History, p. 166.
21 Falola and Heaton, History, p. 181.
22 Falola and Heaton, History, p. 180.
23 Peter Cunliffe-Jones, My Nigeria: Five Decades of Independence (New York, 2010), p. 101.
24 Falola and Heaton, History, pp. 183–5.
25 Falola and Heaton, History, p. 198.
26 Falola and Heaton, History, p. 202.
27 Max Siollun, ‘Umaru Dikko, the man who was nearly spirited away in a diplomatic bag’, Independent (UK), 20 August 2012.
28 Karl Maier, This House Has Fallen: Nigeria in Crisis (London, 2000), pp. 47, 55.
29 Wole Soyinka, You Must Set Forth at Dawn (New York, 2006), p. 222.
30 Falola and Heaton, History, pp. 217–20.
31 Falola and Heaton, History, p. 225.
32 Soyinka, Dawn, pp. 354–5.
33 Soyinka, Dawn, pp. 383–4.
34 Abiola died in 1998 while still imprisoned in what some deemed to be suspicious circumstances.
35 ‘General Sani Abacha’, Africa Confidential, http://www.africa-confidential.com/whos-who-profile/id/2651/Sani_Abacha.
36 ‘Nigerian leaders “stole” $380 bn’, BBC, 20 October 2006, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6069230.stm; GDP examples are based on World Bank data from 2013 (http://databank.worldbank.org/data/download/GDP.pdf).
37 The Carter Center, ‘Postelection Statement on Nigeria Elections, March 1, 1999’, http://www.cartercenter.org/news/documents/doc891.html.
38 European Union Election Observer Mission Nigeria 2003, ‘Final Report on the National Assembly, Presidential, Gubernatorial and State Houses of Assembly Elections’, 2003.
39 Joh
n Ameh, Josiah Oluwole, Ozioma Ubabukoh and Leke Baiyewu, ‘Obasanjo is a joker, liar, he was behind third term – Nnamani, others’, Punch, 8 April 2012.
40 Ed Pilkington, ‘Shell pays out $15.5m over Saro-Wiwa killing’, Guardian (UK), 8 June 2009.
41 These biographical details are based on various sources, mainly interviews conducted by me with those who have closely studied the group. Particular insight was provided by Kyari Mohammed, head of the Centre for Peace and Security Studies at Nigeria’s Modibbo Adama University of Technology, as well as by an academic who has carried out an extensive analysis of Yusuf’s recorded sermons. Because of the sensitivity of the situation, I agreed to abide by the academic’s request that he remain anonymous.
42 Interview with Anayo Adibe, lawyer for Baba Fugu Mohammed.
43 Anonymous, ‘The Popular Discourses of Salafi Radicalism and Salafi Counter-radicalism in Nigeria: A Case Study of Boko Haram’, Journal of Religion in Africa, 42(2) (2012), pp. 118–44, on p. 126.
44 It is widely known as Izala, but its full name is Jamā at izālat al-bida wa iqāmat al-sunna, or the Group for Removing Religious Innovation and Establishing Sunna, according to the study by Anonymous cited above.
45 Anonymous, ‘Discourses’, pp. 121–2, 131–2 and Roman Loimeier, ‘Boko Haram: The Development of a Militant Religious Movement in Nigeria’, Africa Spectrum, 47(2–3) (2012), pp. 137–55, on p. 147.
46 Mervyn Hiskett, ‘The Maitatsine Riots in Kano, 1980: An Assessment’, Journal of Religion in Africa, 17(3) (1987), p. 209, and Abimbola O. Adesoji, ‘Between Maitatsine and Boko Haram: Islamic Fundamentalism and the Response of the Nigerian State’, Africa Today, 57(4) (Summer 2011), pp. 209–33, on p. 101.
47 Elizabeth Isichei, ‘The Maitatsine Risings in Nigeria 1980–85: A Revolt of the Disinherited’, Journal of Religion in Africa, 17(3) (1987), pp. 194–208, on p. 194, and Hiskett, ‘Maitatsine’, pp. 214–15.
48 Falola and Heaton, History, pp. 205–6.
49 Sam Olukoya, ‘Eyewitness: Nigeria’s sharia amputees’, BBC, 19 December 2002, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/2587039.stm.
50 BBC, ‘Nigeria gays: 20 lashes for “homosexual offences”’, 6 March 2014, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-26469501.
51 Human Rights Watch, ‘The “Miss World Riots”: continued impunity for killings in Kaduna’, July 2003, p. 2.
52 Wikileaks, ‘Borno state residents not yet recovered from Boko Haram violence’, 4 November 2009.
53 Anonymous, ‘Discourses’, pp. 133–4.
54 These details come from various sources, including a Nigerian military briefing and interviews with Kyari Mohammed (cited above).
55 Wikileaks, ‘Nigerian Taliban attacks most likely not tied to Taliban nor Al-Qaida’, 6 February 2004.
56 Emmanuel Goujon and Aminu Abubakar, ‘Nigeria’s Taliban plot comeback from hideouts’, Agence France-Presse via Mail & Guardian (South Africa), 11 January 2006.
57 Yusuf says this during his interrogation after his arrest, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ePpUvfTXY7w. Translation from Hausa to English was provided by Professor Abubakar Aliyu Liman of Ahmadu Bello University in Nigeria.
58 Nick Tattersall, ‘Nigerian sect planned bomb attack during Ramadan’, Reuters, 4 August 2009.
59 Anonymous, ‘Discourses’, p. 138.
60 Shehu Sani, ‘Boko Haram: history, ideas and revolt’, Vanguard, 4 July 2011, http://www.vanguardngr.com/2011/07/boko-haram-history-ideas-and-revolt-3/.
61 Henri Laoust, ‘Ibn Taymiyyah’, 23 June 2014, in Encyclopaedia Britannica; retrieved from http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/280847/Ibn-Taymiyyah.
62 For a detailed look at the phrase, see: Paul Newman, ‘The Etymology of Hausa boko’, Mega-Chad Research Network, 2013, retrieved from http://www.megatchad.net/publications/Newman-2013-Etymology-of-Hausa-boko.pdf.
63 Anonymous, ‘Discourses’, pp. 125–6.
64 Marc-Antoine Perouse de Montclos, ‘Nigeria’s Interminable Insurgency? Addressing the Boko Haram Crisis’, Chatham House Research Paper, September 2014, pp. 7–8; Perouse de Montclos told me the book was written in Arabic. I have not seen it myself.
65 Anonymous, ‘Discourses’, pp. 124–5.
66 Joe Boyle, ‘Nigeria’s Taliban enigma’, BBC, 31 July 2009, http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/8172270.stm.
67 Theophilus Abbah, ‘Inside the pages of White Paper on Boko Haram’, Sunday Trust (Nigeria), 3 June 2012.
68 Perouse de Montclos, ‘Nigeria’s Interminable Insurgency?’, p. 9.
69 Goddy Egene and Zacheaus Somorin, ‘Australian negotiator names Ihejirika, Sheriff as sponsors of Boko Haram’, ThisDay (Nigeria), 29 August 2014. Audio from Davis’s interview with Arise News can be found here: http://www.arise.tv/headline/arise-news-now-uk-28-08-8043.
70 Yemi Ajayi, ‘Boko Haram: fed govt report rejects compensation for victims’, ThisDay (Nigeria), 2 April 2013.
71 Ikechukwu Nnochiri, ‘Boko Haram: Yusuf had only 4,000 followers in 2009, Army tells court’, Vanguard, 8 December 2011, http://www.vanguardngr.com/2011/12/boko-haram-yusuf-had-only-4000-followers-in-2009-army-tells-court/.
72 Theophilus Abbah, ‘Inside the pages of White Paper on Boko Haram’, Sunday Trust (Nigeria), 3 June 2012.
73 Walker, Andrew, ‘What is Boko Haram?’, United States Institute of Peace, Special Report 308, June 2012.
74 ‘How politicians help insurgents’, Africa Confidential, 30 November 2012.
75 A representative for Sheriff I spoke to on the phone asked me to send a list of questions by email. He did not respond to the questions.
76 Juliana Taiwo, ‘I’m not the brain behind Boko Haram’, Sun (Nigeria), 14 July 2011.
77 One such claim can be found here: International Crisis Group, ‘Curbing Violence in Nigeria (II): The Boko Haram Insurgency’, 3 April 2014, p. 23.
78 ‘Transcript of Osama bin Laden tape’, 12 February 2003, Associated Press via Sydney Morning Herald.
79 The Charity Commission informed me of its findings by email in response to my questions.
80 Abbah, ‘White Paper’.
81 Anonymous, ‘Discourses’, p. 126.
82 Anonymous, ‘Discourses’, pp. 136–8.
83 Isa Sa’idu, ‘My encounter with Mohammed Yusuf over Boko Haram’, Sunday Trust (Nigeria), 1 January 2012.
84 Yusuf’s ‘tafsir’ or interpretation, of chapter 9, verses 8–12 of the Qur’an. Translation from Hausa to English by Professor Abubakar Aliyu Liman of Ahmadu Bello University. Video can be found at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y33rL_D_6pw and http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R3NcgQv-LVM.
85 Anonymous, ‘Discourses’, p. 128. The committee’s report was not released publicly and I have not seen it, but it was obtained by the anonymous academic cited and I am quoting from his account. I have discussed it with him and find what he has written to be trustworthy.
86 A recording of the speech is included as part of the ‘martyr’ video for the UN suicide bomber, which was obtained by AFP’s northern Nigeria correspondent Aminu Abubakar, who translated it from Hausa to English when we initially worked together on the story. I have also watched the video.
87 Wikileaks, ‘Nigerian Islamist extremists launch attacks in 4 towns’, 28 July 2009; Country Reports on Terrorism 2009, US State Department.
88 Ahmad Salkida, ‘Nigeria: sect leader vows revenge’, Daily Trust (Nigeria), 27 July 2009, http://wwrn.org/articles/31419/?&place=nigeria.
89 Wikileaks, ‘Nigeria: extremist attacks continue into night’, 28 July 2009.
90 Human Rights Watch, ‘Spiraling violence: Boko Haram attacks and security force abuses in Nigeria’, October 2012.
91 Wikileaks, �
�Nigerian government quashes extremists, but not the root of the problem’, 29 July 2009.
92 Wikileaks, ‘Nigerian military combing for extremists, Boko Haram deputy arrested’, 30 July 2009.
93 Human Rights Watch, ‘Spiraling violence’, p. 35.
3 ‘I Will Not Tolerate a Brawl’
1 ‘Nigeria President Umaru Yar’Adua “has heart problem”’, BBC, 26 November 2009.