by Simon Baatz
2. Nathan F. Leopold, Life Plus 99 Years (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1958), 54–55.
3. Ibid., 54–55.
4. “Identifies Loeb in Moron Gland Attack on Midway,” Chicago Daily Journal, 2 June 1924; “‘Gland’ Holdup a Puzzle; Police Quiz Students,” Chicago Daily Tribune, 22 November 1923.
5. “Slain in Auto Near Midway,” Chicago Daily Tribune, 26 November 1923; “Phone Tip Revives Tracy Murder Case,” Chicago Daily News, 21 June 1924; “Two More Chicago Murders Linked with Student Killers; Grand Jury Inquiry Begins,” The World (New York), 4 June 1924.
6. “Loeb, Leopold Sued by Woman,” Chicago Daily Journal, 5 June 1924; “Woman Recites Attack by Franks Killers,” Chicago Daily Journal, 17 July 1924; “Woman Sues Boy’s Slayers,” Chicago Herald and Examiner, 6 June 1924.
i1 7. “Franks’ Killers Gland Robbers?” Chicago Daily Journal, 2 June 1924; “Two More Chicago Murders,” The World (New York), 4 June 1924.
8. “Files Suit against Loeb and Leopold,” Chicago Daily News, 6 June 1924.
9. James Doherty, “Quick Trial for Boy Slayers,” Chicago Daily Tribune, 3 June 1924; “Identifies Loeb,” Chicago Daily Journal, 2 June 1924; “Writ Puts 2 Slayers in Sheriff’s Hands,” Chicago Herald and Examiner, 3 June 1924.
10. “Franks Story to Jury,” Chicago Daily Journal, 3 June 1924; “Grand Jurors Who Will Hear Story of Robt. Franks Murder,” Chicago Daily Tribune, 4 June 1924.
11. “Crowe Acts to Avert Franks Case ‘Fixing,’” Chicago Daily News, 4 June 1924.
12. “Franks Story,” Chicago Daily Journal, 3 June 1924.
13. “Boy Slayers Play Baseball in Jail; Victim’s Father Weeps before Jury,” Chicago Herald and Examiner, 4 June 1924.
14. “Killers Stalked Human Prey,” Chicago Daily Journal, 4 June 1924.
15. “Passage for Leopold Booked on Liner,” Chicago Daily News, 6 June 1924; “Ask Franks Trial in Month,” Chicago Daily Journal, 6 June 1924; “Slayers in Court June 11,” Chicago Evening Post, 6 June 1924.
16. “Ask Franks Trial”; “Slayers in Court.”
17. “Ask Franks Trial.”
18. “Ask Franks Trial”; “Killers Stalked.”
19. “Leopold and Loeb Indicted as Kidnappers and Slayers; Sane, Says State’s Alienist,” The World (New York), 6 June 1924.
20. “Saw Loeb at Wheel before Kidnapping,” Chicago Daily News, 9 June 1924; “Leopold and Loeb Will Plead Not Guilty to Killing,” Chicago Evening Post, 9 June 1924.
21. “City Demands Franks Boy Slayers Be Brought to Trial Immediately,” Chicago Herald and Examiner, 4 June 1924.
22. Ibid.
23. Editorial, “Justice Demands a Speedy Trial,” Chicago Herald and Examiner, 3 June 1924.
24. C. L. Stevens, Letter, “For a Vigilantes’ Committee,” Chicago Herald and Examiner, 7 June 1924.
25. “Slayers’ Parents’ First Statement Bases All Hope on Insanity Plea,” Chicago Herald and Examiner, 7 June 1924; “Won’t Try to Buy Slayers’ Freedom, Fathers Declare,” Chicago Evening Post, 7 June 1924.
26. Editorial, “The Franks Case,” Chicago Daily Tribune, 10 June 1924.
i1 27. “Boy Killers Plead; Trial Set for Aug. 4,” Chicago Daily News, 11 June 1924.
28. “Arraign Two Boy Killers Wednesday,” Chicago Daily Journal, 10 June 1924.
29. “Caverly’s Record Favors Life Terms,” Chicago Daily News, 30 August 1924.
30. “Benjamin Charles Bachrach,” in Paul Gilbert and Charles Lee Bryson, Chicago and Its Makers (Chicago: F. Mendelsohn, 1929), 776; “Benjamin Bachrach, Criminal Lawyer, 76,” New York Times, 1 January 1951.
31. Geoffrey C. Ward, Unforgivable Blackness: The Rise and Fall of Jack Johnson (New York: Knopf, 2004), 296–349.
32. “Try Loeb Leopold on August 4,” Chicago Daily Journal, 11 June 1924; “Boy Killers Plead”; “Franks Trial Aug. 4; Insanity Is Plea,” Chicago Herald and Examiner, 12 June 1924; “Leopold, Loeb Trial Set for Monday, Aug. 4,” Chicago Daily Tribune, 12 June 1924; “Loeb, Leopold Plead Not Guilty; Trial August 4,” Chicago Evening Post, 11 June 1924.
CHAPTER 11: THE SCIENTISTS ARRIVE
1. Clarence Darrow, “Not a Milk and Water Theory,” Everyman 11 (December 1915): 13.
2. “Expert Seeks Murder Gland,” Chicago Daily Journal, 13 June 1924; “Work in Death Cell to Save Boy Slayers,” Chicago Daily News, 13 June 1924.
3. Trial Transcript, fols. 1958–1960.
4. Bowman-Hulbert Report (Leopold), fol. 2; Bowman-Hulbert Report (Loeb), fol. 2.
5. Julia Ellen Rechter, “‘The Glands of Destiny’: A History of Popular, Medical and Scientific Views of the Sex Hormones in 1920s America” (PhD dissertation, University of California at Berkeley, 1997), xvii; John Chynoweth Burnham, “The New Psychology: From Narcissism to Social Control,” in John Braeman, Robert H. Bremner, and David Brody, Change and Continuity in Twentieth-Century America: The 1920s (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1968), 351–398.
6. Benjamin Harrow, Glands in Health and Disease (New York: Dutton, 1922), 14–19, 23–25; André Tridon, Psychoanalysis and Gland Personalities (New York: Brentano’s, 1923), 48, 51–60.
7. R. G. Hoskins, “The Functions of the Endocrine Glands,” Scientific Monthly 18 (March 1924): 257–272.
8. Herman H. Rubin, The Glands of Life (New York: Bellaire, 1935), 26–30, 32–33; Tridon, Psychoanalysis, 18–21; Harrow, Glands, 93–97, 135–138, 140–144.
9. J. M. Murdock, “Endocrine Disturbances in Mental Defectives,” Pennsylvania Medical Journal 25 (1921): 50; Nolan D. C. Lewis and Gertrude R. Davies, “A Correlative Study of Endocrine Imbalance and Mental Disease,” Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 54 (1921): 385–405, 493–512; 55 (1922): 13–32.
10. Karl M. Bowman, “Blood Chemistry in Mental Diseases,” American Journal of Psychiatry, 2nd ser., 2 (1922–1923): 379–408.
11. Karl M. Bowman, Joseph P. Eidson, and Stanley P. Burladge, “Bio-chemical Studies in Ten Cases of Dementia Praecox,” Boston Medical and Surgical Journal 187 (1922): 358–362, quotation on 362.
12. Karl M. Bowman and G. P. Grabfield, “Basal Metabolism in Mental Disease,” Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry 9 (1923): 358–361, quotation on 360.
13. “Weird Apparatus in Slayers’ Aid,” Chicago Herald and Examiner, 15 June 1924; “More Doctors Test Leopold and Loeb,” Chicago Daily News, 14 June 1924; “Test Slayers with Oxygen,” Chicago Daily Journal, 14 June 1924.
14. “Work in Death Cell,” Chicago Daily News, 13 June 1924; “Expert Seeks”; “Leopold-Loeb Defense Now Is Seen as Insanity,” Chicago Evening Post, 13 June 1924; Trial Transcript, fols. 1989, 2093.
15. Trial Transcript, fol. 1989; Bowman-Hulbert Report (Loeb), fol. 52.
16. Bowman-Hulbert Report (Leopold), fol. 75; “Leopold, Jr., under Test of Mental Experts,” Chicago Daily Journal, 16 June 1924.
17. “Needle Charts Leopold’s Mind,” Chicago Daily Journal, 17 June 1924; “Experts Use ‘Flattery Machine’ to Test Leopold’s Vanity,” Chicago Herald and Examiner, 17 June 1924; “Defense Alienists Find Leopold and Loeb Abnormal,” Chicago Evening Post, 16 June 1924.
18. “X-Ray Now to Seek Flaws in Boy Slayers,” Chicago Daily Tribune, 18 June 1924; “Needle Charts,” Chicago Daily Journal, 17 June 1924; Trial Transcript, fols. 2096–2097.
19. Tal Golan, Laws of Men and Laws of Nature: The History of Scientific Expert Testimony in England and America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004), 183–197.
20. Trial Transcript, fol. 1994; Bowman-Hulbert Report (Loeb), fol. 59; Bowman-Hulbert Report (Leopold), fol. 82.
21. Bowman-Hulbert Report (Loeb), fols. 60–62.
k1 22. Bowman-Hulbert Report (Leopold), fols. 83–85; Trial Transcript, fols. 2061–2062.
23. “Leopold-Loeb Tests Fail, Hint,” Chicago Daily Journal, 18 June 1924; Fred D. Pasley, “Are Glands or Boys to Blame in Franks Case?” Chicago Herald and Examiner, 18 June 1924.
24. “Leopold Angry over His Tests,” Chicago Herald a
nd Examiner, 18 June 1924; “Leopold Spurns Insanity Defense,” Chicago Herald and Examiner, 18 June 1924.
25. “Concludes Test of Franks Killers,” Chicago Evening Post, 17 June 1924.
26. “Leopold’s Jail-Break Plot Foiled by Warden,” Chicago Herald and Examiner, 28 June 1924.
27. “Another Expert Here to Test Slayers,” Chicago Daily Journal, 2 July 1924; Leola Allard, “U.S. Expert to Test Slayers,” Chicago Herald and Examiner, 1 July 1924.
28. Lawrence C. Moore, “William A. White—A Biography (1870–1937),” in Arcangelo R. T. D’Amore, ed., William Alanson White: The Washington Years, 1903–1937 (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1976), 13–14.
29. William A. White, Forty Years of Psychiatry (New York, 1933), 28–32; Arcangelo R. T. D’Amore, “William Alanson White—Pioneer Psychoanalyst,” in D’Amore, William Alanson White, 69–71.
30. William Alanson White Notes (Loeb), fols. 2, 3.
31. Ibid., fols. 6–7, 20–21.
32. William Alanson White Notes (Leopold), fol. 14.
33. Ibid., fols. 16, 17.
34. Psychiatric Reports, Unit I/4025 (William Alanson White), fols. 15–16, 18, 35–36.
35. “Other Holidays Recalled on 4th by Loeb, Leopold,” Chicago Daily Tribune, 5 July 1924.
36. Trial Transcript, fols. 1433–1434; William Healy, The Individual Delinquent: A Text-Book of Diagnosis and Prognosis for All Concerned in Understanding Offenders (Boston, MA: Little, Brown, 1915).
37. James W. Trent Jr., Inventing the Feeble Mind: A History of Mental Retardation in the United States (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994), 141–142, 155–166; Leila Zenderland, Measuring Minds: Henry Herbert Goddard and the Origins of American Intelligence Testing (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 235–250.
k1 38. Trial Transcript, fols. 1455–1475.
39. Ibid., fols. 1516–1525.
40. “Franks Defense Expert Staff Still Growing,” Chicago Daily Tribune, 9 July 1924; Trial Transcript, fols. 1660–1662; Bernard Glueck, “A Study of 608 Admissions to Sing Sing Prison,” Mental Hygiene 2 (1918): 85–151; Bernard Glueck, “Concerning Prisoners,” Mental Hygiene 2 (1918): 177–218; Bernard Glueck, “Psychiatric Aims in the Field of Criminology,” Mental Hygiene 2 (1918): 546–556.
41. Trial Transcript, fols. 1674–1677; Psychiatric Reports, Unit I/1375 (Bernard Glueck), fols. 1–2.
42. Psychiatric Reports, Unit I/1375 (Bernard Glueck), fol. 18.
43. Ibid., fol. 27.
44. Edward Shorter, A History of Psychiatry: From the Era of the Asylum to the Age of Prozac (New York: Wiley, 1997), 156–164.
45. Nathan G. Hale Jr., The Rise and Crisis of Psychoanalysis in the United States: Freud and the Americans, 1917–1985 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 3–9, 23–24, 74–78; Catherine Lucille Covert, “Freud on the Front Page: Transmission of Freudian Ideas in the American Newspaper of the 1920s” (PhD dissertation, Syracuse University, 1975), 12–14, 26–34, 36–37; David Evans Tanner, “Symbols of Conduct: Psychiatry and American Culture, 1900–1935” (PhD dissertation, University of Texas at Austin, 1981), 173–180.
46. Gerald N. Grob, Mental Illness and American Society, 1875–1940 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1983), 46–71.
47. Elizabeth Lunbeck, The Psychiatric Persuasion: Gender and Power in Modern America, 1875–1940 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994), 20–24, 46–49.
48. William A. White, Insanity and the Criminal Law (New York: Macmillan, 1923), 23–29, 224–230.
49. Janet Ann Tighe, “A Question of Responsibility: The Development of American Forensic Psychiatry, 1838–1930” (PhD dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1983), 320–323, 339–346.
50. White, Insanity and the Criminal Law, 102–106.
51. Tighe, “A Question of Responsibility,” 321–322.
52. “Loeb Defense Hires Best of Mind Experts,” Chicago Sunday Tribune, 6 July 1924.
53. Gerald Langford, The Murder of Stanford White (New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1962), pp. 17–19, 233–234, 245–256.
54. “Darrow Lauds Kin of Killers,” Chicago Daily Journal, 15 July 1924; “Leopold, Loeb Will Not Seek to Free Sons,” Chicago Daily Journal, 10 July 1924.
55. “New Insanity Defense Seen,” Chicago Daily Journal, 12 July 1924.
56. “Leopold and Loeb Are Superficially Both Sane,” Evening Telegram (Toronto), 12 July 1924.
57. “Insanity School for Crowe Aids in Franks Case,” Chicago Sunday Tribune, 13 July 1924; “Rival Counsel Get Primed for Franks Battle,” Chicago Daily Tribune, 14 July 1924.
58. Philip Kinsley, “Lincoln Faces Death or Asylum,” Chicago Sunday Tribune, 27 January 1924.
59. “‘Not Guilty’ Lincoln Plea in Court,” Aurora Daily Beacon-News, 18 February 1924; “Lincoln Pivot of Franks Case,” Chicago Daily Journal, 18 June 1924; “Lincoln Trial Test in Leopold Case,” Chicago Herald and Examiner, 23 June 1924; “Delay Lincoln Sanity Quiz,” Chicago Daily News, 23 June 1924.
60. “Crowe Attacks Franks’ Killers’ ‘Insane’ Defense,” Chicago Daily Tribune, 18 July 1924.
61. “Radio Loeb-Leopold Trial?” Chicago Daily Tribune, 17 July 1924.
62. Roland Marchand, Advertising the American Dream: Making Way for Modernity, 1920–1940 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985), 88–89.
63. Clayton R. Koppes, “The Social Destiny of the Radio: Hope and Disillusionment in the 1920s,” South Atlantic Quarterly 68 (1969): 364–368.
64. “Public Gives Views on Loeb Trial by Radio,” Chicago Daily Tribune, 18 July 1924.
65. “Opinions Vary on Proposal to Radio Trial,” Chicago Daily Tribune, 18 July 1924; “Tribune Offer to Radio Trial Stirs Public,” Chicago Daily Tribune, 18 July 1924; “City in Furore over Plan for Trial Broadcast,” Chicago Daily Tribune, 19 July 1924.
66. “Leopold, Loeb, Won’t Ask Change of Venue,” Chicago Daily News, 19 July 1924.
67. “Radio of Trial Assailed,” Chicago Daily News, 18 July 1924; “Judges of Two Courts Oppose ‘Trial by Radio,’” Chicago Herald and Examiner, 19 July 1924.
68. “Franks Trial Delay Hinted,” Chicago Daily Journal, 19 July 1924; “First Court Battle in Leopold-Loeb Case Tomorrow,” Chicago Herald and Examiner, 20 July 1924; Genevieve Forbes, “Darrow Ready to Lay Franks Cards on Table,” Chicago Sunday Tribune, 20 July 1924.
69. “Leopold-Loeb ‘Jury Strategy’ Mapped at War Council,” Chicago Herald and Examiner, 18 July 1924.
CHAPTER 12: MITIGATION OF PUNISHMENT
1. Trial Transcript, fols. 1207, 1209.
2. “Killers Admit All; Fate Up to Judge,” Chicago Daily Journal, 21 July 1924; “Leopold Dramatically Calm in Court; Loeb Fearful,” Chicago Herald and Examiner, 22 July 1924.
3. “Breathless Crowds Jam Franks Hearing,” Chicago Daily News, 21 July 1924; “Leopold Dramatically Calm,” Chicago Herald and Examiner, 22 July 1924.
4. Genevieve Forbes, “Call 100 Franks Witnesses,” Chicago Daily Tribune, 22 July 1924.
5. “Loeb, Leopold Plead Guilty; Begin Trial Next Wednesday,” Chicago Daily News, 21 July 1924.
6. “Breathless Crowds.”
7. Charles V. Slattery, “Leopold-Loeb Plead Guilty; Ask Mercy,” Chicago Herald and Examiner, 22 July 1924; Forbes, “Call 100 Franks Witnesses”; Nathan F. Leopold, Life Plus 99 Years (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1958), 61.
8. “Killers Admit All,” Chicago Daily Journal, 21 July 1924; Leopold, Life Plus 99 Years, 62.
9. “Leopold Dramatically Calm.”
10. “Loeb, Leopold Plead Guilty.”
11. Ibid.; “‘Guilty,’ Slayers’ Plea,” Chicago Evening Post, 21 July 1924.
12. “Loeb, Leopold Plead Guilty.”
13. “Leopold Dramatically Calm.”
14. “Crowe to Push Trial with All Possible Speed,” Chicago Daily Tribune, 22 July 1924.
15. Slattery, “Leopold-Loeb Plead Guilty”; “Franks Waits Call to Stand,” Chi
cago Daily Journal, 22 July 1924.
16. “Franks’ Parents Testify; New Scandal Suppressed,” Chicago Daily Journal, 22 July 1924.
17. “Crowds Sit Tense at Franks Hearing,” Chicago Daily News, 23 July 1924.
18. “Mrs. Franks on Stand; Shown Son’s Clothes,” Chicago Daily Journal, 22 July 1924; “Parents of Franks Testify,” Chicago Daily News, 23 July 1924; “Mrs. Franks, Grief Bowed, Is Center of Interest,” Chicago Daily News, 23 July 1924.
19. “Mrs. Franks on Stand”; Trial Transcript, fols. 107–110.