by Sonia Shah
5. PHARMACOLOGICAL FAILURE
1. Interview with John Thomas, BASF, December 6, 2005
2. David A. Warrell and Herbert M. Gilles, eds., Essential Malariology, 4th ed. (London: Hodder Arnold, 2002), 305–309.
3. Institute of Medicine, Saving Lives, Buying Time: Economics of Malaria Drugs in an Age of Resistance (Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press, 2004), 212.
4. “Herbicide Hope for Malaria,” BBC News, January 31, 2003.
5. Gerald Tenywa, “Chimps Eat Herbs to Cure Malaria,” AllAfrica.com, January 19, 2007; information on Vernonia amygdalina at www.fao.org.
6. Nina L. Etkin, “The Co-evolution of People, Plants, and Parasites: Biological and Cultural Adaptations to Malaria,” Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 62 (2003): 311–17.
7. Fiammetta Rocco, The Miraculous Fever-Tree: Malaria and the Quest for a Cure That Changed the World (New York: HarperCollins, 2003), 77.
8. Alan Crozier et al., eds., Plant Secondary Metabolites: Occurrence, Structure and Role in the Human Diet (Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing, 2006), 102.
9. Warrell and Gilles, eds., Essential Malariology, 4th ed., 280–81.
10. Erwin H. Ackerknecht, Malaria in the Upper Mississippi Valley, 1760–1900 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1945), 107.
11. Quoted in Jon Kukla, “Kentish Agues and American Distempers: The Transmission of Malaria from England to Virginia in the Seventeenth Century,” Southern Studies 25, no. 2 (Summer 1986): 135–47.
12. Frank M. Snowden, The Conquest of Malaria: Italy, 1900–1962 (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2006), 46.
13. Philip D. Curtin, Disease and Empire: The Health of European Troops in the Conquest of Africa (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 58.
14. Quoted in Patrick Brantlinger, “Victorians and Africans: The Genealogy of the Myth of the Dark Continent,” Critical Inquiry 12, no. 1 (Autumn 1985): 166–203.
15. Rocco, The Miraculous Fever-Tree, 77.
16. Roy Porter, The Greatest Benefit to Mankind: A Medical History of Humanity (New York: W. W. Norton, 1997), 230.
17. Paul Reiter, “From Shakespeare to Defoe: Malaria in England in the Little Ice Age,” Emerging Infectious Diseases 6, no. 1 ( January–February 2000): 1–11.
18. Mark Honigsbaum, The Fever Trail: In Search of the Cure for Malaria (Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2001), 34; Reiter, “From Shakespeare to Defoe,” 1–11.
19. Charles Morrow Wilson, “Quinine: Reborn in Our Hemisphere,” Harper’s, August 1943.
20. Rocco, The Miraculous Fever-Tree, 225–30.
21. Oliver Wendell Holmes, Boylston Prize Dissertations for the Years 1836 and 1837 (Boston: Charles C. Little and James Brown, 1838), 30.
22. Letter from David Livingstone to Dr. James Ormiston McWilliam, November 28, 1860, published in Transactions of the Epidemiological Society of London, 1860, available at www.livingstoneonline.ucl.ac.uk.
23. Ibid.
24. Physicians in the United States recommended the antimalarial properties of coffee as late as 1884. “One wonders whether this supposed virtue of coffee was not instrumental in converting the Americans from tea to coffee drinking.” Ackerknecht, Malaria in the Upper Mississippi Valley, 1760–1900, 123.
25. Honigsbaum, The Fever Trail, 57.
26. Ackerknecht, Malaria in the Upper Mississippi Valley, 1760–1900, 113. Converted into 2006 dollars using inflation calculator at www.westegg.com/inflation/.
27. Ibid., 120.
28. Rocco, The Miraculous Fever-Tree, 249.
29. Norman Taylor, Cinchona in Java: The Story of Quinine (New York: Greenberg, 1945), 50.
30. Ibid., 59–61.
31. Ibid., 38.
32. Ibid., 55.
33. Ibid., 51.
34. Ibid., 50, 62.
35. Ibid., 54.
36. Ibid., 61.
37. Ibid., 66.
38. Snowden, The Conquest of Malaria, 46–47.
39. M. L. Duran-Reynals, The Fever Bark Tree (New York: Doubleday and Co., 1946), 212–27.
40. Rocco, The Miraculous Fever-Tree, 110.
41. Ibid., 225–30.
42. Ibid., 249.
43. Taylor, Cinchona in Java, 75.
44. Duran-Reynals, The Fever Bark Tree, 212–27.
45. For example, when a Japanese-owned cinchona operation refused to join the cartel and sold quinine at a more affordable price—to the American Red Cross and others—the Kina Bureau attacked. It threatened to hinder the company’s shipments of Java-grown bark to Tokyo, and ordered its producers to keep quinine off the market to drive the price back up. “Quinine Seized Here in Anti-trust Drive,” New York Times, March 24, 1928. In 1929, as a bounty of bark threatened to depress the price of quinine, the bureau ordered cinchona plantations to be destroyed. Again, between 1934 and 1937, it restricted the export of cinchona bark from Dutch-controlled Indonesia, and banned the export of planting material, lest anyone successfully culture cinchona elsewhere. Duran-Reynals, The Fever Bark Tree, 212–27.
46. “Hoover Warns World of Trade Wars,” New York Times, January 10, 1926.
47. “New Move to End the Quinine Trust,” New York Times, March 30, 1928, 16.
48. “Indictments out in Quinine Inquiry,” New York Times, March 31, 1928, 21.
49. “Cinchona: Quinine to You,” Fortune, January 25, 1934 (unsigned article but presumed to be authored by Norman Taylor, according to his “Biographical Note,” at the New York Botanical Gardens Mertz Library).
50. Ibid.
51. Duran-Reynals, The Fever Bark Tree, 212–27.
52. “Cinchona: Quinine to You.”
53. Ibid.
54. Patricia Barton, “Powders, Potions, and Tablets: The ‘Quinine Fraud’ in British India, 1890–1939,” in James H. Mills and Patricia Barton, eds., Drugs and Empires: Essays in Modern Imperialism and Intoxication, c. 1500–c. 1930 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), 145.
55. Ibid., 156.
56. Ibid., 146.
57. Ibid., 145.
58. Sheila Zurbrigg, “Rethinking the Human Factor in Malaria Mortality: The Case of Punjab, 1868–1940,” Parassitologia 36 (1994): 121–35.
59. Honigsbaum, The Fever Trail, 87.
60. Rocco, The Miraculous Fever-Tree, 107.
61. Ackerknecht, Malaria in the Upper Mississippi Valley, 1760–1900, 106–13.
62. Letter from David Livingstone to Dr. James Ormiston McWilliam, November 28, 1860, available at www.livingstoneonline.ucl.ac.uk.
63. www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quinine#Dosing
64. David Livingstone and John Kirk, “Original Communications: Remarks on the African Fever on the River Zambezi,” letter to the editor of the Medical Times and Gazette, November 12, 1859.
65. William Garden Blaikie, The Personal Life of David Livingstone (London: John Murray, 1880), digital version available on Project Gutenberg, at www.gutenberg.org/files/13262/13262-8.txt.
66. Curtin, Disease and Empire, 24, and Ackerknecht, Malaria in the Upper Mississippi Valley, 1760–1900, 107.
67. Warrell and Gilles, eds., Essential Malariology, 4th ed., 281.
68. Ibid., 198.
69. Mark Harrison, Public Health in British India: Anglo-Indian Preventive Medicine, 1859–1914 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 163.
70. F. Bruneel, B. Gachot, M. Wolff, B. Régnier, M. Danis, F. Vachon, “Resurgence of Blackwater Fever in Long-term European Expatriates in Africa: Report of 21 Cases and Review,” Clinical Infectious Diseases 32, no. 8 (April 15, 2001), 1133–40.
71. C. M. Wenyon, “The Incidence and Etiology of Malaria in Macedonia,” Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps 27 (1921): 83–277.
72. Quoted in Gordon Harrison, Mosquitoes, Malaria and Man: A History of the Hostilities Since 1880 (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1978), 172.
73. Snowden, The Conquest of Malaria, 46.
74. Ibid., 73.
75. Ibid., 75.
76. Ibid., 74–75.
77
. Quoted in Greer Williams, The Plague Killers: Untold Stories of Three Great Campaigns Against Disease (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1969), 146.
78. Robert Aura Smith, “Trade Preference Sought by Leaders in Philippines,” New York Times, September 23, 1934.
79. Wilson, “Quinine: Reborn in Our Hemisphere.”
80. Rocco, The Miraculous Fever-Tree, 288.
81. Mark Harrison, “Medicine and the Culture of Command: The Case of Malaria Control in the British Army During the Two World Wars,” Medical History 40 (1996): 437–52.
82. Duran-Reynals, The Fever Bark Tree, 232.
83. Harrison, “Medicine and the Culture of Command,” 437–52.
84. Andrew Spielman and Michael D’Antonio, Mosquito: A Natural History of Our Most Persistent and Deadly Foe (New York: Hyperion, 2001), 142.
85. Wilson, “Quinine: Reborn in Our Hemisphere.”
86. “Increase Is Seen in Malaria Fever,” New York Times, April 11, 1942; “Malaria Hits 100,000,000,” New York Times, October 18, 1942.
87. Raymond B. Fosdick, “Malaria Control,” The Scientific Monthly, January 1944, 48; Harry Summers, “4 ‘Jalopy’ Planes Last Bataan Hope,” New York Times, April 22, 1942; Duran-Reynals, The Fever Bark Tree, 237–41.
88. Fosdick, “Malaria Control,” 48.
89. Harrison, “Medicine and the Culture of Command,” 437–52.
90. Fosdick, “Malaria Control,” 48.
91. “The Quinine Cartel,” New York Times, September 6, 1942, 6.
92. Duran-Reynals, The Fever Bark Tree, 232.
93. Williams, The Plague Killers, 145.
94. John Farley, To Cast Out Disease: A History of the International Health Division of the Rockefeller Foundation (1913–1951) (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), 134.
95. Williams, The Plague Killers, 147.
96. Spielman and D’Antonio, Mosquito, 143.
97. www.sel.barc.usda.gov/diptera/ann_text.html.
98. Robert J. T. Joy, “Malaria in American Troops in the South and Southwest Pacific in World War II,” Medical History 43 (1999): 192–207.
99. Institute of Medicine, Saving Lives, Buying Time, 260.
100. Laurie Garrett, The Coming Plague: Newly Emerging Diseases in a World Out of Balance (New York: Penguin Books, 1994), 49.
101. Robert S. Desowitz, The Malaria Capers: More Tales of Parasites and People, Research and Reality (New York: W. W. Norton, 1991), 205.
102. Letter from Norman Taylor to Cinchona Instituut, February 2, 1947, Norman Taylor Papers Archive, New York Botanical Garden, Mertz Library, Series 2.
103. C. P. Gilmore, “Malaria Wins Round 2,” New York Times, September 25, 1966.
104. Institute of Medicine, Saving Lives, Buying Time, 173.
105. Desowitz, The Malaria Capers, 205.
106. Letter from Norman Taylor to Cinchona Instituut, January 11, 1946, Norman Taylor Papers Archive, New York Botanical Garden, Mertz Library, Series 2.
107. Letter from Norman Taylor to Cinchona Instituut, April 26, 1948, Norman Taylor Papers Archive, New York Botanical Garden, Mertz Library, Series 2.
108. Letter from Norman Taylor to Cinchona Instituut, August 10, 1948, Norman Taylor Papers Archive, New York Botanical Garden, Mertz Library, Series 2.
109. Letter from Norman Taylor to Cinchona Instituut, January 1, 1947, Norman Taylor Papers Archive, New York Botanical Garden, Mertz Library, Series 2.
110. A. W. Sweeney, “The Possibility of an ‘X’ Factor: The First Documented Drug Resistance of Human Malaria,” International Journal of Parasitology 26, no. 10 (1996): 1035–61.
111. Ibid.
112. Jonathan D. Moreno, Undue Risk: Secret State Experiments on Humans (New York: W. H. Freeman and Company, 2000), 50.
113. Sweeney, “The Possibility of an ‘X’ Factor,” 1035–61.
114. Ibid.
115. Ibid.
116. Ibid.
117. Ibid.
118. Ibid.
119. Ibid.
120. Ibid.
121. Ibid.
122. Walther H. Wernsdorfer, “Epidemiology of Drug Resistance in Malaria,” Acta Tropica 56 (1994): 143–56.
123. Sweeney, “The Possibility of an ‘X’ Factor,” 1035–61.
124. Elisabeth Rosenthal, “Outwitted by Malaria, Desperate Doctors Seek New Remedies,” New York Times, February 12, 1991.
125. Gilmore, “Malaria Wins Round 2.”
126. Institute of Medicine, Saving Lives, Buying Time, 260.
127. Elisabeth Rosenthal, “Outwitted by Malaria.”
128. I. Singh and T. S. Kalyanum, “The Superiority of ‘Camoquin’ over Other Antimalarials,” British Medical Journal 2, no. 4779 (August 9, 1952): 312–15.
129. C. M. Trenholme et al., “Mefloquine (WR 142,490) in the Treatment of Human Malaria,” Science 190, no. 4216 (November 21, 1975): 792–94.
130. T. M. Cosgriff et al., “Evaluation of the Antimalarial Activity of the Phenanthrenemethanol Halofantrine (WR 171,669),” American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 31, no. 6 (November 1982): 1075–79.
131. N. J. White, “Quinidine in Falciparum Malaria,” Lancet 318, no. 8255 (November 1981): 1069–71.
132. Cosgriff, “Evaluation of the Antimalarial Activity of the Phenanthrenemethanol Halofantrine (WR 171,669),” 1075–97.
133. U. D’Alessandro and H. Buttiëns, “History and Importance of Antimalarial Drug Resistance,” Tropical Medicine and International Health 6, no. 11 (November 2001): 845–48.
134. Rosenthal, “Outwitted by Malaria.”
135. Wernsdorfer, “Epidemiology of Drug Resistance in Malaria,” 143–56.
136. Pamela McElwee, “ ‘There Is Nothing That Is difficult’: History and Hardship on and After the Ho Chi Minh Trail in North Vietnam,” Asia Pacific Journal of Anthropology 6, no. 3 (December 2005): 197–214.
137. Ibid.
138. “Military Scientist Took War on Malaria from Jungle to Market,” South China Morning Post, January 1, 2006, 5.
139. John Prados, The Blood Road: The Ho Chi Minh Trail and the Vietnam War (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1999), xiv.
140. D’Alessandro and Buttiëns, “History and Importance of Antimalarial Drug Resistance,” 845–48, and Walter Modell, “Malaria and Victory in Vietnam,” Science 162, no. 3860 (December 1968): 1346–52; Gilmore, “Malaria Wins Round 2.”
141. Vivien Cui, “Military Scientist Took War on Malaria from Jungle to Market,” South China Morning Post, January 1, 2006, 5; Merrill Goozner, “The First 13-Year-Old Patient,” The Scientist 20, no. 12 (December 2006).
142. Qinghaosu Antimalaria Coordinating Research Group, “Antimalaria Studies on Qinghaosu,” Chinese Medical Journal 92 (December 1979): 811–16.
143. Ibid.
144. Elisabeth Hsu, “Reflections on the ‘Discovery’ of the Antimalarial Qinghao,” British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 61, no. 6 ( June 2006): 666–70.
145. T. T. Hien and N. J. White, “Qinghaosu,” The Lancet 341, no. 8845 (March 6, 1993): 603–608.
146. Cui, “Military Scientist Took War on Malaria from Jungle to Market”; Qinghaosu Antimalaria Coordinating Research Group, “Antimalaria Studies on Qinghaosu.”
147. Hsu, “Reflections on the ‘Discovery’ of the Antimalarial Qinghao,” 666–70.
148. Ibid.
149. Qinghaosu Antimalaria Coordinating Research Group, “Antimalaria Studies on Qinghaosu.”
150. Walther H. Wernsdorfer, “Drug Resistance of Malaria Parasites,” Twentieth Expert Committee on Malaria, working paper MAL/ECM/20/98/15, undated.
151. Médecins Sans Frontières, “ACT NOW to Get Malaria Treatment That Works to Africa,” April 2003.
152. “Herbal Vietnam War Remedy Key to Cheap Malaria Cure,” Edmonton Journal, November 16, 2003.
153. David Lague, “Revolutionary Discovery,” Far Eastern Economic Review, March 14, 2002.
154. Goozner, “The First 13-Year-Old Patient.”
155. Qinghaosu Anti
malaria Coordinating Research Group, “Antimalaria Studies on Qinghaosu.”
156. Hsu, “Reflections on the ‘Discovery’ of the Antimalarial Qinghao,” 666–70.
157. Lague, “Revolutionary Discovery.”
158. Carrie Chan, “Malaria Expert Close to Achieving His Dream,” South China Morning Post, March 6, 2003.
159. Andrew Jack, “Monotherapy ‘Saves the Lives of So Many,’” Financial Times, January 20, 2006, 10.
160. Cui, “Military Scientist Took War on Malaria from Jungle to Market,” 5.
161. Ibid.
162. “Novartis Malaria Drug Riamet Wins Marketing Approval in Switzerland”; “Novartis in Talks with WHO over Cheaper Malaria Drugs”; Agence France Presse, May 3, 2001.
163. “Novartis Malaria Drug Riamet Wins Marketing Approval in Switzerland”; “Novartis in Talks with WHO over Cheaper Malaria Drugs”; Gatonye Gathura, “WHO Warns Malaria Drug Makers,” The Nation (Kenya), January 26, 2006; Jack, “Monotherapy ‘Saves the Lives of So Many,’ ” 10.
164. Institute of Medicine, Saving Lives, Buying Time, 174
165. Médecins Sans Frontières, “ACT NOW to Get Malaria Treatment That Works to Africa.”
166. Institute of Medicine, Saving Lives, Buying Time, 175.
167. Amir Attaran et al., “WHO, the Global Fund, and Medical Malpractice in Malaria Treatment,” Lancet 363 ( January 17, 2004): 237–40.
168. Médecins Sans Frontières, “ACT NOW to Get Malaria Treatment That Works to Africa.”
169. Ibid.
170. Melody Peterson, “Novartis Agrees to Lower Price of a Medicine Used in Africa,” New York Times, May 3, 2001.
171. Donald G. McNeil, “New Drug for Malaria Pits U.S. Against Africa,” New York Times, May 28, 2002.
172. Rick Steketee, “Policy Change to Use Effective Antimalarial Drugs in Programs—CDC Experience,” Roll Back Malaria partners meeting, Geneva, February 26–28, 2002, available at www.rbm.who.int/docs/5pm_presentations/Steketee.ppt.
173. Donald G. McNeil, “Herbal Drug Widely Embraced in Treating Resistant Malaria,” New York Times, May 10, 2004, 1.
174. Gavin Yamey, “Global Health Agencies Are Accused of Incompetence,” British Medical Journal 321, no. 7264 (September 30, 2000): 787.
175. Attaran et al., “WHO, the Global Fund, and Medical Malpractice in Malaria Treatment.”