by Sonia Shah
76. James Whorton, Before Silent Spring: Pesticides and Public Health in Pre-DDT America (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1974), 6–41.
77. L. O. Howard, Fighting the Insects: The Story of an Entomologist (New York: Arno Press, 1980).
78. Andrew Spielman and Michael D’Antonio, Mosquito: A Natural History of Our Most Persistent and Deadly Foe (New York: Hyperion, 2001), 118; Gordon Harrison, Mosquitoes, Malaria and Man, 168.
79. John Farley, To Cast Out Disease: A History of the International Health Division of the Rockefeller Foundation (1913–1951) (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), 111.
80. Ibid., 118.
81. Quoted in Hugh Evans, “European Malaria Policy in the 1920s and 1930s: The Epidemiology of Minutiae,” Isis 80, no. 301 (March 1989): 40–59.
82. Gordon Harrison, Mosquitoes, Malaria and Man, 185.
83. Hackett, Malaria in Europe, 16.
84. Howard, Fighting the Insects, 120.
85. Hackett, Malaria in Europe, 40–41.
86. Paul F. Russell, “Identification of the Larvae of the Three Common Anopheline Mosquitoes of the Southern United States,” American Journal of Epidemiology 5 (March 1925): 149–74.
87. Hackett, Malaria in Europe, 273.
88. Ibid., 235.
89. Ibid., 266.
90. “Will Tropical Medicine Move to the Tropics?” Lancet 347, no. 9002 (1995).
91. David Arnold, The New Cambridge History of India: Science, Technology, and Medicine in Colonial India (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 145–46.
92. E. Richard Brown, “Public Health in Imperialism: Early Rockefeller Programs at Home and Abroad,” American Journal of Public Health 66, no. 9 (1976): 897–903.
93. William E. Collins and John W. Barnwell, “A Hopeful Beginning for Malaria Vaccines,” New England Journal of Medicine 359 (December 11, 2008): 2599–601; Judith E. Epstein, “What Will a Partly Protective Malaria Vaccine Mean to Mothers in Africa?” Lancet 370, no. 9598 (November 3, 2007): 1523–24.
94. Ben C. L. van Schaijk et al., “Gene Disruption of Plasmodium falciparum p52 Results in Attenuation of Malaria Liver Stage Development in Cultured Primary Human Hepatocytes,” PLoS One 3, no. 10 (October 28, 2008); Jason Fagone, “The Scientist Ending Malaria with His Army of Mosquitoes,” Esquire, December 8, 2008.
95. Louis Miller, quoted in Susan Okie, “Betting on a Malaria Vaccine,” New England Journal of Medicine 353 (November 3, 2005): 1877–81.
96. Mary Moran et al., The Malaria Product Pipeline: Planning for the Future (Sydney, Australia: George Institute for International Health, 2007).
97. Interview with Dyann Wirth, March 10, 2008.
98. Kathryn S. Aultman et al., “ Anopheles gambiae Genome: Completing the Malaria Triad,” Science 298, no. 5591 (October 4, 2002): 13; “Gateses Give Record $5 Billion Gift to Foundation,” New York Times, June 3, 1999.
99. Visit to Dyann Wirth lab, Harvard School of Public Health, Cambridge, Mass., March 10, 2008.
8. THE DISAPPEARED: HOW MALARIA VANISHED FROM THE WEST
1. M. J. Dobson, “‘Marsh Fever’: The Geography of Malaria in England,” Journal of Historical Geography, 6, no. 4 (1980): 357–89.
2. Paul Reiter, “From Shakespeare to Defoe: Malaria in England in the Little Ice Age,” Emerging Infectious Diseases 6, no. 1 ( January–February 2000): 1–11.
3. Dobson, “ ‘Marsh Fever,’ ” 357–89.
4. Ibid., 357–89.
5. Lewis W. Hackett, Malaria in Europe: An Ecological Study (London: Oxford University Press, 1937), 174.
6. Jon Kukla, “Kentish Agues and American Distempers: The Transmission of Malaria from England to Virginia in the Seventeenth Century,” Southern Studies 25, no. 2 (Summer 1986): 135–47.
7. William MacArthur, “A Brief Story of English Malaria,” British Medical Bulletin 8, no. 1 (1951): 76–79.
8. Stephen Frenkel and John Western, “Pretext or Prophylaxis? Racial Segregation and Malarial Mosquitoes in a British Tropical Colony: Sierra Leone,” Annals of the Association of American Geographers 78, no. 2 ( June 1988): 211–28; J.W.W. Stephens and S. R. Christophers, “The Segregation of Europeans,” Report to the Malaria Committee of the Royal Society, October 1, 1900.
9. John W. Cell, “Anglo-Indian Medical Theory and the Origins of Segregation in West Africa,” The American Historical Review 91, no. 2 (April 1986): 307–35.
10. Mark Harrison, “Medicine and the Culture of Command: The Case of Malaria Control in the British Army During the Two World Wars,” Medical History 40 (1996): 437–52.
11. W. E. Baker, T. E. Dempster, and H. Yule, “The Prevalence of Organic Disease of the Spleen as a Test for Detecting Malarious Localities in Hot Climates” (Calcutta: Office of Superintendent of Government Printing, 1868), 14; Ian Stone, Canal Irrigation in British India (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1984), 18–20.
12. Elizabeth Whitcombe, Agrarian Conditions in Northern India: The United Provinces Under British Rule, 1860–1900 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972), 62–64, 88.
13. David Arnold, The New Cambridge History of India: Science, Technology, and Medicine in Colonial India (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 115.
14. Whitcombe, Agrarian Conditions in Northern India, 25.
15. From www.rainwaterharvesting.org/Rural/Traditional2.htm#Beng.
16. Baker, Dempster, and Yule, “The Prevalence of Organic Disease of the Spleen,” 11.
17. H. E. Shortt and P.C.C. Garnham, “Samuel Rickard Christophers, 27 November 1873–19 February 1978,” Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society 25 (November 1979): 179–207.
18. W. F. Bynum, “‘Reasons for Contentment’: Malaria in India, 1900–1920,” Parassitologia 40 (1998): 19–27.
19. Sheldon Watts, “British Development Policies and Malaria in India 1897–c. 1929,” Past and Present (November 1999): 141–81.
20. Ibid., 141–81.
21. Mridula Ramana, “Florence Nightingale and Bombay Presidency,” Social Scientist 30, no. 9/10 (September–October 2002): 31–46.
22. Raymond E. Dumett, “The Campaign Against Malaria and the Expansion of Scientific Medical and Sanitary Services in British West Africa, 1898–1910,” African Historical Studies 1, no. 2 (1968): 153–97.
23. J.W.W. Stephens, “Discussion on the Prophylaxis of Malaria,” British Medical Journal (September 17, 1904).
24. Erwin H. Ackerknecht, Malaria in the Upper Mississippi Valley, 1760–1900 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1945), 5, 23, 25, 39, 44.
25. Ibid., 33–34.
26. Marie D. Gorgas and Burton J. Hendrick, William Crawford Gorgas: His Life and Work (New York: Doubleday, Page and Company, 1924), 41; John M. Gibson, Physician to the World: The Life of General William C. Gorgas (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1950), 27.
27. Gibson, Physician to the World, 35, 40.
28. Gorgas and Hendrick, William Crawford Gorgas, 6, 47; Paul Starr, The Social Transformation of American Medicine (New York: Basic Books, 1982), 81–85, 115–16.
29. Gibson, Physician to the World, 35, 43, 50; Gordon Harrison, Mosquitoes, Malaria and Man: A History of the Hostilities Since 1880 (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1978), 158–59; David McCullough, The Path Between the Seas: The Creation of the Panama Canal, 1870–1914 (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1977), 412.
30. Gorgas and Hendrick, William Crawford Gorgas, 122; Gibson, Physician to the World, 67; McCullough, The Path Between the Seas, 412, 415.
31. McCullough, The Path Between the Seas, 407–08, 423; Gibson, Physician to the World, 103, 126.
32. James Stevens Simmons, Malaria in Panama (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1939), 95; Gorgas and Hendrick, William Crawford Gorgas, 153; McCullough, The Path Between the Seas, 416.
33. Simmons, Malaria in Panama, 168; David A. Warrell and Herbert M. Gilles, Essential Malariology, 4th ed. (New York: Hodder Arnold, 2002), 331.
34. Simmons, Malaria in Panama
, 27; McCullough, The Path Between the Seas, 416, 420.
35. Gibson, Physician to the World, 134.
36. Ibid., 105, 107, 119, 132; McCullough, The Path Between the Seas, 421, 452.
37. Gibson, Physician to the World, 123.
38. Gorgas and Hendrick, William Crawford Gorgas, 164.
39. McCullough, The Path Between the Seas, 423.
40. Ibid., 448, 451, 452, 458; Gibson, Physician to the World, 113–14.
41. McCullough, The Path Between the Seas, 467–68.
42. Dumett, “The Campaign Against Malaria,” 153–97.
43. Simmons, Malaria in Panama, 96; Harrison, Mosquitoes, Malaria and Man, 166–67; McCullough, The Path Between the Seas, 468; Gibson, Physician to the World, 150.
44. Simmons, Malaria in Panama, 6, 36–50, 52, 56.
45. “The Real Builders of the Panama Canal,” New York Times, October 22, 1912; B. W. Higman, “Black Labor on a White Canal: Panama, 1904–1981 (Review),” American Historical Review 92 ( June 1987): 778.
46. “Magoon Here, Replies to Poultney Bigelow,” New York Times, January 29, 1906, 1.
47. Michael Conniff, Black Labor on a White Canal: Panama, 1904–1981 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1985), 32, 38.
48. McCullough, The Path Between the Seas, 576–77.
49. “Panama Made Safe, Says Col. Gorgas,” New York Times, June 13, 1907.
50. “Roosevelt Photo Gets Scant Applause,” New York Times, November 30, 1907.
51. James L. A. Webb, Humanity’s Burden: A Global History of Malaria (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 78.
52. L. Schuyler Fonaroff, “Geographic Notes on the Barbados Malaria Epidemic,” The Professional Geographer 18, no. 3 (May 1966): 155–63.
53. From General Gorgas’s testimony in L. D. Hand v. Alabama Power Company, February 11, 1915, published in pamphlet form as The Great Destroyers by Robert L. Hughes, Anniston, Ala.
54. Conniff, Black Labor on a White Canal, 30.
55. McCullough, The Path Between the Seas, 501, 582.
56. “Gorgas’s Conquest of Disease,” New York Times, September 22, 1912, X7.
57. McCullough, The Path Between the Seas, 503, 587.
58. “Roosevelt Photo Gets Scant Applause.”
59. Gibson, Physician to the World, 179, 180, 209.
60. Ibid., 165, 172, 176–77, 208.
61. Malcolm Gladwell, “The Mosquito Killer: Millions of People Owe Their Lives to Fred Soper. Why Isn’t He a Hero?” The New Yorker, July 2, 2001.
62. Gibson, Physician to the World, 184, 197.
63. Henry Welles Durham, “The Clean-up of Panama,” New York Times, July 28, 1914, 6; L. H. Woolsey, “Executive Agreements Relating to Panama,” American Journal of International Law 37, no. 3 ( July 1943): 482–89.
64. H. R. Carter, “The Effect of Variation of Level of Impounded Water on the Control of Anopheles Production,” Southern Medical Journal 17, no. 8 (August 1924): 575–78.
65. Harvey H. Jackson, Putting Loafing Streams to Work: The Building of Lay, Mitchell, Martin, and Jordan Dams, 1910–1929 (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1997), 40.
66. From General Gorgas’s testimony in L. D. Hand v. Alabama Power Company.
67. Revised for clarity—original quote written phonetically. Jack Kytle, “I’m Allus Hongry,” in James Seay Brown, Jr., ed., Up Before Daylight: Life Histories from the Alabama Writers’ Project, 1938–1939 (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1982), 125–26.
68. Jackson, Putting Loafing Streams to Work, 46.
69. Letter from T.H.D. Griffitts to Henry Rose Carter, March 12, 1913, Philip S. Hench Walter Reed Yellow Fever Collection, available at www.etext.lib.virginia.edu/etcbin/fever-browseprint?id=01022015.
70. Revised for clarity—original quote written phonetically. Kytle, “I’m Allus Hongry,” 125–26.
71. W. H. Sanders, “Annual Report of the Board of Health of Alabama,” Montgomery, Ala.: December 1914.
72. Harvey H. Jackson, Putting Loafing Streams to Work, 37, 51.
73. Interview with Harvey Jackson, August 9, 2006.
74. Revised for clarity—original quote written phonetically. Quoted in Jackson, Putting Loafing Streams to Work, 49, 52; Thomas Martin, Forty Years of the Alabama Power Company, 1911–1951 (New York: Newcomen Society in North America, 1952), 13.
75. From General Gorgas’s testimony in L.D. Hand v. Alabama Power Company.
76. Landrift D. Hand v. Louisville Nashville Railroad Company, Circuit Court, Shelby County, Ala., December 11, 1914.
77. Correspondence with Andrew Spielman, August 22, 2006.
78. From General Gorgas’s testimony in L.D. Hand v. Alabama Power Company.
79. Correspondence with Andrew Spielman, October 10, 2006; from General Gorgas’s testimony in L.D. Hand v. Alabama Power Company.
80. Alabama Power Co. v. Carden, Supreme Court of Alabama, 189 Ala. 384, 66 So. 596, November 7, 1914.
81. Carter, “The Effect of Variation of Level of Impounded Water,” 575–78.
82. Samuel W. Welch, “Annual Report of the State Board of Health of Alabama,” Montgomery, Ala., December 31, 1917.
83. “If it constructed the dam in compliance with the law it could not be guilty of negligence in causing the backing of the water,” Burnett v. Alabama Power Company, 199 Ala. 337, 74 So. 459, December 21, 1916.
84. Theodore Steinberg, Nature Incorporated: Industrialization and the Waters of New England (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 244; also Walter H. Voskuil, The Economics of Water Power Development (Chicago and New York: A.W. Shaw Company, 1928), 15; and Ackerknecht, Malaria in the Upper Mississippi Valley, 72.
85. Ann Vileisis, Discovering the Unknown Landscape: A History of America’s Wetlands (Washington, D.C.: Island Press), 64, 67, 82.
86. Half of the animals now endangered in the United States and a third of endangered plants hail from wetland habitats. Ibid., 123, 124, 270.
87. Ackerknecht, Malaria in the Upper Mississippi Valley, 94.
88. See www.tva.gov/heritage/fdr/index.htm; Andrew Spielman and Michael D’Antonio, Mosquito: A Natural History of Our Most Persistent and Deadly Foe (New York: Hyperion, 2001), 152.
89. Margaret Humphreys, Malaria: Poverty, Race, and Public Health in the United States (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001), 111; John Duffy, “Impact of Malaria on the South,” in Todd L. Savitt and James Harvey Young, eds., Disease and Distinctiveness in the American South (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1988), 50.
90. Voskuil, The Economics of Water Power Development, 146; T.H.D. Griffitts, “Impounded Waters and Malaria,” Southern Medical Journal 19 (1926): 367–70; Carter, “The Effect of Variation of Level of Impounded Water,” 575–78.
91. See www.tva.gov/heritage/fdr/index.htm; Spielman and D’Antonio, Mosquito, 152.
92. Humphreys, Malaria, 142.
93. Mark Overton, “Agricultural Revolution in England, 1500–1850,” available at www.bbc.co.uk/history.
94. Hackett, Malaria in Europe, 89.
95. Mark Overton, “The Diffusion of Agricultural Innovations in Early Modern England: Turnips and Clover in Norfolk and Suffolk, 1580–1740,” Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, New Series, 10, no. 2 (1985): 205–21.
96. E. L. Jones, “Agriculture and Economic Growth in England, 1660–1750: Agricultural Change,” The Journal of Economic History 25, no. 1 (March 1965): 1–18.
97. Hackett, Malaria in Europe, 56, 63, 69.
98. Ibid., 64.
99. www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/
agricultural_revolution_02.shtml.
100. Letter from Dr. Livingstone to the editor, Medical Times and Gazette, January 26, 1863.
101. Dobson, “ ‘Marsh Fever,’ ” 357–89.
9. THE SPRAY-GUN WAR
1. O. R. McCoy, “Malaria and the War,” Science 100, no. 2607 (December 15, 1944): 535–39.
2. Mark Harrison, “Medicine
and the Culture of Command: The Case of Malaria Control in the British Army During the Two World Wars,” Medical History 40 (1996): 437–52.
3. Frank M. Snowden, The Conquest of Malaria: Italy, 1900–1962 (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2006), 188–89.
4. Anne O’Hare McCormick, “Undoing the German Campaign of the Mosquito,” New York Times, September 13, 1944.
5. Snowden, The Conquest of Malaria, 196–97.
6. John H. Perkins, “Reshaping Technology in Wartime: The Effect of Military Goals on Entomological Research and Insect-Control Practices,” Technology and Culture 19, no. 2 (April 1978): 169–86.
7. Christopher J. Bosso, Pesticides and Politics: The Life Cycle of a Public Issue (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1987), 30.
8. George W. Ware and David M. Whitacre, The Pesticide Book, 6th ed. (Willoughby, Ohio: MeisterPro Information Resources, 2004); “Toxicological Profile for DDT, DDE, and DDD,” Agency for Toxic Substance and Disease Registry, 2002; International Programme on Chemical Safety, “Global Assessment of the State-of-the-Science of Endocrine Disruptors,” World Health Organization, 2002.
9. Ware and Whitacre, The Pesticide Book; Edmund Russell, “The Strange Career of DDT: Experts, Federal Capacity, and Environmentalism in World War II,” Technology and Culture 40 (1999): 770–96.
10. Bosso, Pesticides and Politics, 30.
11. “Public to Receive DDT Insecticide,” New York Times, July 27, 1945.
12. Bosso, Pesticides and Politics, 31.
13. Perkins, “Reshaping Technology in Wartime,” 169–86.
14. Waldemar KaemPeffert, “DDT, the Army’s Insect Powder, Strikes a Blow Against Typhus and for Pest Control,” New York Times, June 4, 1944.
15. Joshua Blu Buhs, The Fire Ant Wars: Nature, Science, and Public Policy in Twentieth-century America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004), 69.
16. E. P. Russell III, “Speaking of Annihilation: Mobilizing for War Against Human and Insect Enemies, 1914–1945,” Journal of American History 82 (1996): 1505–29.
17. Ibid.
18. James Whorton, Before Silent Spring: Pesticides and Public Health in Pre-DDT America (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1974), 249.