by A R Azzam
39 Al-Jilani was initiated at the hands of the Hanbali sufi Abu as-Sad al-Mukharrimi
(d. 1119). Interestingly, al-Jilani initially received a frosty reception from other
sufis because of his background as a jurist, but he always believed that a know-
ledge of fiqh and sufism was crucial.
• 249 •
N O T E S
40 The example of Abu Madyaii Shu'ayb is a good one of how far al-Jilani's
influence spread. Born in Seville, Abu Madyan travelled extensively and is said to
have met al-Jilani in Mecca. Abu Madyan recognised him as the qutb and was
initiated by him. Abu Madyan then returned to the West, where he spent his
remaining years in Algeria.
41 Nur al-Din, for example, built a madrasa in Harran for Asad Ibn al-Manja Ibn
Barkat, who was a disciple of al-Jilani, as well as for Qutb al-Din al-Nishapuri
himself
42 C. Addas, Quest for the Red Sulphur: The Life of Ibn Arabi, Cambridge 1993, 185.
43 Of course the relationship was not without its tensions and misunderstandings;
witness Saladin's order, following pressure from the ulama, to execute the Sufi
al-Suhrawardi in 1191.
44 Addas, op. cit., 185.
45 Ibid., 185.
46 J. Berkey, The Transmission of Knowledge in Medieval Cairo, Princeton 1992, 180.
47 Ibid., 211.
48 Mustafa, op. cit., 41.
Chapter 4 The Battle for Egypt
1 Runciman, op. cit., 363.
2 B. Hamilton, The Leper Kin^ and his Heirs, Cambridge 2000, 63.
3 D. Ayalon, 'Egypt as a Dominant Factor in Syria and Palestine during the
Islamic Period', in A. Cohen and G. Baer (eds), Egypt and Palestine: A
Millennium of Association, 868-1948, New York 1984, 31.
4 Ibid., 32.
5 Ibid., 24 and 25.
6 Runciman, op. cit., 373.
7 Al-Wahrani, quoted in Lyons and Jackson, op. cit., 6.
8 G. Leiser, 'The restoration of Sunnism in Egypt: Madrasa and Mudarrisun
495-647/1101-1249', unpublished PhD dissertation, University of
Pennsylvania 1976, 110 (henceforth thesis).
9 C. Hillenbrand, op. cit., 45.
10 A. Ehrenkreutz, 'The Fatimids in Palestine - the unwitting promoters of the
Crusades', in A. Cohen and G. Baer (eds), E^ypt iind Palestine: A. M^illcfifiiufyi of Association, 868-1948, New York 1984, 72.
11 C. Hillenbrand, op. cit., 46.
12 Y. Lev, State and Society in Fatimid Egypt, Leiden 1991, 140.
13 S. Goitein, A Mediterranean Society, Berkeley 1967, vol. 2, 278-81.
• 250 •
N O T E S
14 Leiser, thesis, 106.
15 The first Sunni madhab to take root in Egypt was the Malild one, which
remained unrivalled until the arrival of Imam Shafii in Egypt in 814. Rapidly his
madhab grew and it is reported that in 938 the Malikis and the Shafiis each had
15 circles of students in the mosque of Amr ibn al-As, the oldest mosque in
Egypt and a bastion of Sunnism, while the Hanafis only had three.
16 Leiser, thesis, 119.
17 Quoted in Leiser, thesis, 117.
18 Mention briefly should be made of a meeting between al-Turtushi and al-Ghazali
in Alexandria, when the latter travelled to the city. Both men intriguingly
were born in the same year, one in Tus, the other in Tortossa. Both studied law
and travelled extensively, and both settled in Damascus, where they dwelled in
a sufi khanaqah. The meeting was brief and not cordial and al-Turtushi later
found time to criticise the writings of al-Ghazali, a criticism which was perhaps
borne out of envy towards his more illustrious visitor.
19 Ehrenkreutz, Saladin, 13.
20 G. Leiser, 'The Madrasa and the Islamization of the Middle East: the case of
Egypt', Journal of the American Research Center in E^ypt, XXII (1985), 30
(henceforth JARCE).
21 R. Bulliet, Conversion to Islam in the Medieval Period, Harvard 1979, 93.
22 C. Hillenbrand, op. cit., 43-4.
23 Leiser,/ARC£, 32.
24 D. Ephrat, 'Muslim reaction to the Prankish presence in Bilad al-Sham', Al-
Masaq, 15/1 (March 2003); and B. Kedar, Crusade and Mission, European
Approaches Towards the Muslims, Princeton 1984.
25 Leiser,/ARC£, 32.
26 Once again, however, the actions of the caliph al-Hafiz raised the suspicions of
the Sunni community; he declared a state fianeral and ordered the government
ministries to close for three days in mourning. He then followed Bahram's
coffin, covered with brocade, on a mule until the ftineral cortege had reached
the burial place. There the caliph dismounted, sat on the edge of the tomb and
wept proflisely. For the watching Muslims, such an unprecedented show of pub-
lic emotion was shocking, particularly so since, in their eyes, it clearly demon-
strated the favour which the caliph showed to the Christians.
27 L e i s e r , 3 8 .
28 One should not be surprised to read that al-Silafi studied at the Nizamiyya in
Baghdad, after which he travelled the Islamic worid for the next 12 years
gathering hadith, before arriving in Alexandria on his way to North Africa and
Spain. In fact he was never again to leave Egypt.
29 Leiser, thesis, 158.
30 Ibid., 101.
31 Quoted in Kailani, op. cit., 33.
• 251 •
N O T E S
32 Ibid., 33.
33 Ibid., 236.
34 Lyons and Jackson, op. cit., 6-29.
35 On Shirkuh writing to Abbasid caliph, see ElisseefF, Nur ad Din: Un £rand
prince, vol. 2, 603.
36 Lyons and Jackson, op. cit., 10.
37 A sign of the respect that Saladin had for Ibn Masai was the fact that he ordered
that payments that Ibn Masai had arranged to be made to certain people should
continue after his death.
38 Lyons and Jackson, op. cit., 19.
Chapter 5 The Unlikely Vizier
1 Ehrenkreutz, Saladin, 50.
2 Ibid., 57.
3 H. Gibb, 'The armies ofSaladin', Cahiers d'Histoire E£jyptienne, III (May 1951), 304.
4 Elisseeflf, Nur ad-Din: Un^randprince, vol. 2, 635.
5 Y. Lev, Saladin in Egypt, Brill 1999, 48.
6 Lyons and Jackson, op. cit., 25.
7 Runciman, op. cit., 369.
8 Ibid., 383.
9 Lyons and Jackson, op. cit., 31.
10 Ehrenkreutz, Saladin, 67.
11 Ibid., 67.
12 Lyons and Jackson, op. cit., 28.
13 Ibid., 31.
14 Encyclopedia of Islam, vol. 2, 607.
15 See also Hadia Dajani-Shakeel, 'Al-Qadi al-Eadil: his life and political career',
unpublished doctorate dissertation. University of Michigan, 1972.
16 Al-Qadi al-Fadil rarely left Egypt and only on trips in the service of Saladin or
on pilgrimage.
17 Lyons and Jackson, op. cit., 56.
18 Dajani-Shakeel, op. cit., 31.
19 Ibid., 34.
20 Ibid., 46.
21 Lev, Saladin in E^ypt, 18.
22 Ibid., 66-76.
23 Ibid., 73.
24 Ibid., 69.
25 Ibid., 76.
26 Ehrenkreutz, Saladin, 67.
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N O T E S
Chapter 6 Master of Egypt
1 D. Jackson, '1193-1993: An Appreciation of the career of Saladin', in U.
Vermeulen and D. de Smet (eds) Ejiypt and Syria in the Fatimid, Ayyubid and
Mamluk E
ms, Leuven 1995, 221.
2 Ehrenkxeutz, Saladin, 69.
3 Jackson, op. cit., 225.
4 Quoted in Lyons and Jackson, op. cit., 65.
5 Ibid., 44.
6 Ibid., 35.
7 Ibid., 36.
8 Ayyub was granted the iqta of the delta - Alexandria, Damietta and the
Buhayrah province - while Turan Shah held the iqta of the upper Egyptian
provinces of Qus and Aswan.
9 See Y. Tabba, The Transformation of Islamic Art during the Sunni Revival,
Seatde 2001, 30.
10 Ibid., 50.
11 For the impact of the Sunni Revival on other forms of Islamic art and in par-
ticular the stalactite or honeycomb vaulting, see Tabba, op. cit., 129-33.
12 Ibid., 68.
13 Others counted among the alumni of al-Silafi were the secretary of the Diwan of
al-Insha, Ibn al-Jarrah, who died in Damietta in 1219 during the crusader attack
on the city; the minister of the army, Abu Muhammad al-Maqdisi, who held the
ministry under the last Fatimid viziers and Saladin for some 20 years until his
death in 1188; and the historian Ibn Mammati, who was placed in charge of all
the ministries under Saladin. Another person of note was Abul Fadail al-Qasim
al-Shahrazuri. Born in Mosul, he studied in the Nizamiyya, where he was a close
companion of Imad al-Din al-Isfahani. He then went to Egypt to be in the ser-
vices of Saladin and where he studied under al-Silafi. He succeeded his uncle
Kamal al-Din as chief qadi of Damascus and later Saladin sent him to the
Abbasid court in Baghdad. He was then sent to Mosul where he became qadi
al-qudat of that city, for it must be recalled that Mosul was the city of origin of
the Sharazuris.
14 Berkey, op. cit., 23.
15 Lev, op. cit., 124.
16 Leiser, thesis, 192.
17 Berkey, op. cit., 24.
18 In addition to the collecting of ijazas, the student also kept a notebook in which he recorded not only when he heard a certain scholar teach a particular lesson
(samaat), but also the professors with whom he studied (mujam al-mashyakha).
This was crucial to verify one's position in the chain of authorities.
19 Gilbert, thesis, 19.
20 Ibid., 21.
• 253 •
N O T E S
Chapter 7 The Prize of Syria
1 C. Hillenbrand, op. cit., 194.
2 Ehrenkreutz, op. cit., 107.
3 Ibid., 72.
4 Gibb, 'The achievement of Saladin', 44-60.
5 Ehrenkreutz, op. cit., 238.
6 Jackson, op. cit., 220.
7 Lyons and Jackson, op. cit., 156.
8 Jackson, op. cit., 220.
9 Mustafa, op. cit., 152.
10 Runciman, op. cit., 400.
11 Ibid.,405.
12 J. Riley-Smith, The Feuda.1 Nobility and the Kin£idom of Jerusalem, 1174-1277, London 1973, 103.
13 Hamilton, op. cit., 66.
14 R. Smail, The Crusaders in Syria and the Holy Land, London 1973, 21.
15 Lyons and Jackson, op. cit., 88-9.
16 Ibid., 92-3.
17 Ibid., 97.
18 D. Richards, 'Imad al Din al-Isfahani, administrator, litterateur and historian', in M. Shatzmiller (ed.). Crusaders and Muslims in Twelfth Century Syria, Leiden 1993, 138.
19 Ibid.
20 Ibid., 145.
21 Al-Wahrani, quoted in Lyons and Jackson, op. cit., 59.
22 Runciman, op. cit., 414.
Chapter 8 The Meddlesome Priest: Saladin and
al-Khabushani
1 Ibn Jubayr, Rihla, ed. W. Wright, Gibb Memorial Series, London 1907, vol. 5, 22-3.
2 Leiser, thesis, 234.
3 Berkey, op. cit., 4.
4 Leiser,/AilCE, 42.
5 G. Makdisi, The Rise of Colleges, Edinburgh 1981, 36.
6 It should be noted that once the waqf was created, the founder could no longer
change its terms.
7 Leiser, Notes on the Madrasa, 19.
8 Berkey, op. cit., 57.
9 Leiser, thesis, 265.
• 254 •
N O T E S
10 Ibid., 421.
11 Ibid., 283.
12 Lev, Saladin in E^ypt, 128.
13 S. Humphreys, 'Women as patrons of religious architecture in Ayyubid
Damascus', Muqarnasll (1994), 35.
14 Berkey, op. cit., 55.
15 Humphreys, op. cit., 36.
16 Ibid.
17 Ibid, 42.
18 iVIakdisi, op. cit., 39.
19 The Diwan al-Ahbas (diwan of religious endowments), which had jurisdiction
over the administration and maintenance of religious and educational institu-
tions, was established as an independent diwan and was placed under the super-
vision of al-Qadi al-Fadil.
20 Leiser,/7lJlC£,45.
21 Ibid., 46.
22 Lev, op. cit., 77.
23 Berkey, op. cit., 8.
24 C. Petry, The Civilian Elite of Cairo in the Later Middle A^es^ Princeton 1981, 344-89.
25 Leiser,/ARC£,46-7.
26 Gilbert, thesis, 211.
27 Ibid., 213.
28 Gilbert also notes that during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries the number
of mosques in Damascus requiring a khatib increased from one to nine.
29 Leiser, Notes on the Madrasa, 22.
30 Ibid., 23.
31 J.W.G. Wiet, History of Mankind, vol. 3 The Great Medieval Civilizations, UNESCO 1975, 458.
Chapter 9 Saladin and the Leper King
1 Hamilton, op. cit., 106.
2 Ibid., 111.
3 Ibid., 122.
4 Ibid., 124.
5 Ibid., 131.
6 Smail, op. cit., 92-3.
7 Runciman, op. cit., 417.
8 Smail, op. cit., 66-7.
9 Ibid., 139.
10 D. Nicolle, The Third Crusade 1191, Oxford 2005, 38.
• 255 •
N O T E S
11 Smail, op. cit., 154.
12 Ibid., 150.
13 TAum^hKys, From SaMin to the Mongols, S2.
14 Runcimaii, op. cit., 419.
15 Hamilton, op. cit., 149.
16 Lyons & Jackson, op. cit., 149.
17 Ibid., 160.
18 A. Ehrenki-eutz, 'The place of Saladin in the naval history of the Mediterranean
Sts. Journal of the America-n Oriental Society, 75 (1955), 100-16.
19 Lyons and Jackson, op. cit., 170.
20 Ibid., 171.
21 Ibid., 176.
22 Smail, op. cit., 178.
23 Lyons and Jackson, op. cit., 188.
24 Hamilton, op. cit., 181.
25 Lyons and Jackson, op. cit., 200.
26 R. Nicholson, Joseelyn III and the Fall of the Crusader States 1134-1199, Leiden 1973, 109.
Chapter 10 Sailing Close to Disaster: Saladin's
Illness at Harran
1 Riley-Smith, op. cit., 106.
2 P. Edbury, 'Propaganda and faction in the Kingdom of Jerusalem: the back-
ground to Hattin', in M. Shatzmiller (ed.). Crusaders and Muslims in Twelfth-
century Syria, Leiden 1993, 178.
3 Hamilton, op. cit., 197.
4 J. Folda, 'The tomb of King Baldwin IV', in The Art of the Crusaders in the Holy Land 1098-1187, Cambridge 1995, 461.
5 Riley-Smith, op. cit., 105.
6 Newby, op. cit., 104.
7 Lyons and Jackson, op. cit., 239.
8 Humphreys, op. cit., 58.
9 For an analysis of the succession of Guy of Lusignan, see Hamilton, op. cit.,
220-34.
10 Hamilton, op. cit., 223.
11 Ibid., 224.
12 G. Regan, Lionhearts: Saladin and Richard I, London 1998, 65.
&nbs
p; 13 See B. Hamilton, 'The elephant of Christ: Reynald of Chatillon', Studies in
Church History, 15 (1978), 97-108.
14 YLd^milton, The Leper King, 226.
15 Edbury, op. cit., 187.
• 256 •
N O T E S
Chapter 11 Victory at Hattin
1 Lyons and Jackson, op. cit., 253.
2 C. Hillenbrand, op. cit., 179.
3 Regan, op. cit., 72.
4 H. Mayer, 'Henry II of England and the Holy Land', English Historical Review,
97 (1982), 736.
5 Lyons and Jackson, op. cit., 260-1.
6 Regan, op. cit., 83.
7 Ibid., 87.
8 Ibid.
9 D. Nicolle, Hattin 1187, Sdadin's Greatest Victory, Oxford 1993, 88.
10 Regan, op. cit., 90.
Chapter 12 The Return of Jerusalem
1 H. Gibb, 'The rise of Saladin, 1169-1189', in K. Setton (ed.), A History of the Crusades, Philadelphia 1958, vol. 1, 563-89.
2 Regan, op. cit., 93.
3 C. Hillenbrand, op. cit., 188.
4 C. Hillenbrand, op. cit., 299.
5 Ibn Shaddad, The Rare and Excellent History of Saladin, trans. D. Richards, Aldershot 2002, 2.
6 Ibid., 2.
Chapter 13 The Arrival of Richard
1 Regan, op. cit., 112.
2 Lyons and Jackson, op. cit., 281.
3 As well as with those of Jazirat Umar, Diyar Bakr and Mardin.
4 Lyons and Jackson, op. cit., 290.
5 Ibid., 292.
6 Ibid., 294.
7 Regan, op. cit., 119.
8 C. Tyerman, God's War: A New History of the Crusades, London 2006, 409.
9 Lyons and Jackson, op. cit., 311.
10 Regan, op. cit., 133.
11 Lyons and Jackson, op. cit., 337.
12 Ibid., 338.
• 257 •
N O T E S
Chapter 14 A Bitter Siege of Attrition: Saladin,
Richard and Jerusalem
1 Humphreys, op. cit., 65.
2 Newby, op. cit., 165.
3 Regan, op. cit., 204.
4 Gibb, 'The rise of Saladin', 563-89.
Chapter 15 Death in Damascus: Saladin's Last
Days
1 Humphreys, op. cit., 87.
2 C. Cahen, 'Turldsh invasion', in K. Setton (ed.), A History of the Crusades,
Wisconsin 1969-74, vol. 1, 176.
3 Gibb, 'The achievement of Saladin', 44-60.
4 Humphreys, op. cit., 377.
5 Ibid., 32.
6 Ibid., 37.
7 Ibid., 34.
8 Ibid., 33.