by Frank McLynn
The role of Vasconcelos and other intellectuals is described in Roderic A. Camp, et al., Los intelectuales y el poder en Mexico (Mexico City 1991). See also Joaquin Cardenas Noriega, lose Vasconcelos, 1882-1982: Educador, Politico y Profeta (Mexico City 1982) and Vasconcelos's own account in Memorias: Ulises Criollo La Tormenta (Mexico City 1983). Villa's womanising is described in a number of accounts, including those by Silvestre Terrazas and Luz Corral already cited, and in Peterson and Knowles, Pancho Villa: Intimate Reflections, op. cit. The best source for Zapata's private life in Mario Gill, Episodios mexicanos: Mexico en la hoguera (Mexico City 1960).
CIVIL WAR
The civil war of 1915 is covered in a number of detailed volumes: Alfonso Taracena, La verdadera revolucion mexicana 1915-1917 (Mexico City 1992); Miguel A. Sanchez Lamego, Historia militar de la revolucion en la epoca de la convencion (Mexico City 1983); Berta Ulloa, La encrucijada de 1915 (Mexico City 1979) and Veracruz: capital de la nacion (1914-1915) (Mexico City 1986); John W. F. Dulles, Yesterday in Mexico (Austin 1961). The battles of Celaya and Leon-Trinidad are covered in detail in the villista literature, e.g., Guzman, Memoirs; Silvestre Terrazas, El verdadero Pancho Villa op. cit.; Federico Cervantes, Francisco Villa, op. cit.; and in representative books such as Edgcumb Pinchon, Viva Villa! A Recovery of the Real Pancho Villa (1933). Obregon's side of things is in his Ocho mil kilometros, op. cit. Another valuable memoir for the battles is Gabriel Gavira, General de Brigada Gabriel Gavira. Su actuacion politicomilitar revolucionaria (Mexico City 1933). Carranza's `take' is in Manuel W. Gonzalez, Contra Villa: Relato de la campana, 1914-1915 (Mexico City 1935). There is a very valuable guide to the campaign in the lengthy introduction to the 1966 edition of Obregon's Ocho mil by Francisco J. Grajales. Additionally there is a monograph published by the Instituto Nacional de Estudios Historicos de la Revolucion Mexicana entitled Batalla de Celaya (Mexico City 1985). For the greater importance of Trinidad than Celaya see Juan Barragan Rodriguez, Historia del ejercito, 2 vols, op. cit.
For a thorough analysis of the social composition of the armies, a whofought-who examination, and the fascinating counterfactual of a Villa presidency see Alan Knight, Mexican Revolution, op. cit, vol 2. The role of Pelaez is set out in Jonathan Brown, Oil and Revolution in Mexico, op. cit., and Friedrich Katz, Secret War, op. cit. The reasons that led men to side with Carranza and the Constitutionalists rather than Villa (and even the reasons for desertions by villistas) are explained in Federico Gonzalez Garza, La revolution mexicana (Mexico City 1982); Beatriz Rojas, La pequena guerra: Los Carrera Torresyy los Cedillo (Michoacan 1983); Alberto J. Pani, Apuntes autobiogrkficos (Mexico City 1951); Armando de Maria y Campos, Mugica: Cronica biogrkfica aportacion a la historia de la revolution mexicana (Mexico City 1939) and Jose Santos Chocana, Obras completas (Mexico City 1954).
For Villa immediately after Trinidad see Jorge Aguilar Mora, Una muerte sencilla, justa y eterna, op. cit.; Gilberto Alvarez Salinas, Pancho Villa en Monterrey (Monterrey 1969); Begona Hernandez y Lazo, Las batallas de la Plaza de Chihuahua, 1915-1916 (Mexico City 1984). For Villa's tangled relationship with the USA and its souring there are pointers in Juan Ignacio Barragan and Mario Cerutti, Juan F. Brittingham y la industria en Mexico, 1859-1g4o (Monterrey 1993) and Alden Buell Case, Thirty Years with the Mexicans: In Peace and Revolution (New York 1917). Eyewitness accounts are especially valuable for this period and into Carranza's hegemony. Noteworthy are M. Cuzin, journal d'un Francais au Mexique, Guadalajara: 16 Novembre-6 7uillet 1915 (Paris 1983) and Daisy Cadden Pettus, ed., The Rosalie Evans Letters from Mexico (Indianapolis 1926). The almost simultaneous deaths of four of the great villains of the Revolution, Urbina, Fierro, Orozco and Huerta, are dealt with in Juvenal, zQuien es Francisco Villa? op. cit.; Louis Stevens, Here Comes Pancho Villa, op. cit.; Ira Jefferson Bush, Gringo Doctor, op. cit.; Ernest Otto Schuster, Pancho Villa's Shadow (New York 1947); Edith O'Shaughnessy, Intimate Pages, op. cit.; and Barbara Tuchman, The Zimmermann Telegram (New York 1966).
THE PUNITIVE EXPEDITION
By early 1915 all Zapata's best achievements were behind him, see Edgcumb Pinchon, Zapata the Unconquerable (New York 1941). See also Carlos Reyes Aviles, Cartones Zapatistas (Mexico City 1928); H. Alonso Reyes, Emiliano Zapata: Su vida y su Obra (Mexico City 1963). For the agricultural commissions see Marte R. Gomez, Las comisiones agrarias del sur (Mexico City 1961); Antonio Diaz Soto y Gama, La revolucion agraria del Sur y Emiliano Zapata, su caudillo (Mexico City 1960); Eyler N. Simpson, The Ejido: Mexico's Way Out (Chapel Hill, North Carolina 1937). The military operations are covered in Federico Cervantes, Felipe Angeles en la Revolucion: Biografia (1861919) (Mexico City 1964); Jose Morales Hesse, El General Pablo Gonzalez: Datos para la historic, 191o-1916 (Mexico City 1916); Oscar Lewis, Pedro Martinez: A Mexican Peasant and his Family (New York 1964); Estado Mayor del Vicente Segura, Historia de la Brigada Mixta `Hidalgo', 1915-1g16 (Mexico City 1917) and Rosa King, Tempest over Mexico, op. cit.
The growing tensions between Mexico and the United States are examined in: Isidro Fabela, La politica interior y exterior de Carranza (Mexico City 1979); Charles H. Harris, `The Plan of San Diego and the Mexican-United States War Crisis of 1916: A Reexamination', HAHR 58 (1978), pp. 381-408; Emily S. Rosenberg, World War One and the Growth of United States Predominance in Latin America (New York 1987); Robert Freeman Smith, The United States and Revolutionary Nationalism in Mexico, 1916-1932 (Chicago 1972); David F. Houston, Eight Years with Wilson's Cabinet, 1913-1920 (New York 1926) Louis G. Kahle, `Robert Lansing and the recognition of Venustiano Carranza', HAHR 38 (1958), PP. 353-72. German intrigues are the subject of Reinhard R. Doerries, Imperial Challenge: Ambassador Count Bernstorff and German American Relations, 1908-1917 (Chapel Hill, North Carolina 1918); James A. Sandos, `German Involvement in Northern Mexico, 1915-1916: A New Look at the Columbus Raid', HAHR 50 (1970), pp. 7o-89; Holst von der Goltz, My Adventures as a German Secret Agent (New York 1917) and Barbara Tuchman, The Zimmermann Telegram, op. cit.
Villa's sensational attack on Columbus has predictably prompted a plethora of studies. See Friedrich Katz, Pancho Villa y el ataque a Columbus, Nuevo Mexico (Chihuahua 1979); Friedrich Katz, `Pancho Villa and the Attack on Columbus, New Mexico', American Historical Review 83 (1978), pp. 101-3o; Larry A. Harris, Pancho Villa and the Columbus Raid (El Paso 1949); Charles H. Harris and Louis R. Sadler, `Pancho Villa and the Columbus Raid: The Missing Documents', New Mexico Historical Review 50 (1975), PP. 335-46; Haldeen Braddy, Pancho Villa at Columbus: The Raid of 1916 (El Paso 1965); Victor Ceja Reyes, Yo, Francisco Villa y Columbus (Chihuahua 1987); Clarence C. Clenenden, The United States and Pancho Villa, op. cit.; Tom Hahoney, `The Columbus Raid', South-West Review 17 (1932), pp. 161-71; Francis J. Munch, `Villa's Columbus Raid: Practical Politics or German Design?', New Mexico Historical Review 44 (1969), pp. 189-214; Bill Rakoczy, Villa Raids Columbus NM (EI Paso 1981); Rafael Trujillo Herrera, Cuando Villa entro en Columbus (Mexico City 1973); E. Bruce White, `The Muddied Waters of Columbus, New Mexico', Americas 32 (1975) PP. 72-98; Alberto Calzadiaz Barrera, Porque Villa ataco Columbus: Intriga internacio- nal (Mexico City 1972).
The Punitive Expedition, involving Mexico in a three-way conflict, can be approached from three perspectives.. First, the American: Frank Tompkins, Chasing Villa (Pennsylvania 1939); Herbert Molloy Mason, The Great Pursuit: General John J. Pershing's Punitive Expedition Across the Rio Grande to Destroy the Mexican Bandit Pancho Villa (New York 1970); Michael L. Tate, `Pershing's Punitive Expedition: Pursuer of Bandits or Presidential Panacea?', Americas 32 (1975), PP. 46-72; Haldeen Braddy, Pershing's Mission in Mexico (El Paso 1966). Secondly, the Carrancista: Alberto Salinas Carranza, La expedicion punitiva (Mexico City 1936); Isidro Fabela and J. E. Fabela, Documentos historicos de la revolucion mexicana, vol. 4 (1968). Finally, the villista: Nellie Campobello, Apuntes sobre la vida militar de Francisco Villa (Mexico City 1940) and Federico Cervantes, Francisco Villa y la revolucion, op. cit.
Biography (and autobiography) proves its worth t
o the historian here. On Pershing there is Richard O'Connor, Blackjack Pershing (New York 1961); Donald Smythe, Guerrilla Warrior: The Early Life of John Pershing (New York 1973) and H. A. Toulmin, With Pershing in Mexico (Pennsylvania 1935). Patton yields an even richer seam: Ladislas Farago, Patton (1964); I. V. Hogg, Patton: The Biography of General George S. Patton (1982); Martin Blumenson, Patton (1985); Blumenson, ed., The Patton Papers, 2 vols (Boston 1974) and, above all, the outstanding biography by Carlo d'Este, A Genius for War: A Life of General George S. Patton (1995)•
THE TWILIGHT OF ZAPATISMO
For the increasing chaos in Mexico from the end of 1916 onwards see (for the diseases) Alberto Pani, La higiene en Mexico (Mexico 1916); Moises Gonzalez Navarro, Poblacion y sociedad en Mexico 0900-1970), 2 vols (Mexico City 1974); William H. McNeil, Plagues and People; J. C. Cloudesley-Thompson, Insects: A History (1976); (for the destruction on the railways) Alberto Pani, Apuntes autobiogrkficos (Mexico City 1951); Fernando Gonzalez Roa, El problema ferrocarrilero (Mexico City 1919); (for the economy) James W. Wilkie, The Mexican Revolution: Federal Expenditure and Social Change since 1910 (Berkeley 1967); E. J. Kemmerer, Inflation and Revolution: Mexico's Experience of 1912-17 (Princeton 1940); John Womack, `The Mexican Economy during the Revolution, 191o-192o: Historiography and Analysis', Marxist Perspectives 1 (1978). For the great 'flu pandemic of 1918 see Fred R. van Hartesveldt, The 1918-1929 Pandemic of Influenza: the Urban Impact in the Western World (1992) and Richard Collier, The Plague of the Spanish Lady: The Influenza Pandemic of 1918-19 (1974)•
Political events can be followed in Alfonso Taracena, La verdadera revolution mexicana. Sexta etapa (1918 a 1921) (Mexico City 1992); Alvaro Matute, Historia de la revolution mexicana, periodo 1917-24: La carrera del caudillo (Mexico City 1980); Jorge Flores Vizcarra and Otto Granados Roldan, Salvador Alvarado y la revolution mexicana (Sinaloa 1980); Miguel Alessio Robles, Historia politica de la revolution (Mexico City 1985); Felix Palavicini, Mi vida revolucionaria (Mexico City 1937). Carranza's anti-catholicism and its long-term consequences can be followed in Robert E. Quirk, The Mexican Revolution and the Catholic Church, op. cit.; Jean Meyer, The Cristero Rebellion: The Mexican People between Church and State, 1926-29 (Cambridge 1976); Eduardo J. Correa, El Partido Catolico National y sus directores (Mexico City 1991). The constitutional conference at Queretaro and the 1917 constitution have spawned many books and monographs, viz: Eberhardt Victor Niemeyer, Revolution at Queretaro: The Mexican Constitution Convention of 1916-1917 (Austin 1974); Berta Ulloa, La constitucion de 1917 (Mexico City 1983); Pastor Rouaix, Genesis de los articulos 27 y 123 de la constitucion politica de 1917 (Mexico City 1959); Felix Palavicini, Historia de la constitucion de 1917, 2 vols (Mexico City 198o) and Palavicini, Los diputados (Mexico City 1976). See also Salvador Cruz, Vida y obra de Pastor Rouaix (Mexico City 1980); Manuel Robles Linares, Pastor Rouaix: Su vida y su obra (Mexico City 1976).
The revolt of Felix Diaz can be followed in the Diaz biographies already cited, especially Luis Liceaga, Felix Diaz, op. cit., and Gene Z. Hanrahan, The Rebellion of Felix Diaz (1983). The felicista revolt was in many ways the classical externally motivated rebellion, and the prize was oil. See Emily S. Rosenberg, Spreading the American Dream: American Economic and Cultural Expansion, 1895-1945 (New York 1982) and Rosenberg, `Economic Pressures in Anglo-American Diplomacy in Mexico, 1917-1918', Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 17 (1975) Pp. 123-52; Lorenzo Meyer, Mexico y Estados Unidos en el conflicto petrolero (1917-42) (Mexico City 1991) and Meyer, `La revolucion mexicana y las potencias anglosajones', Historia Mexicana 34 (1984), PP. 300-352; Dennis J. O'Brien, `Petroleo e intervencion: Relaciones entre Estados Unidos y Mexico, 1917-1918', Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 17 (1977), pp. 123-52; Alfred Vagts, Mexico, Europa and Amerika unter besonderer Berucksichtigung der Petroleumpolitik (Berlin 1928).
The late period of Zapatismo, its decline in Morelos but spreading influence elsewhere is best followed in Gildardo Magana, Emiliano Zapata y el agrarismo en Mexico, 5 vols (Mexico City 1985). See also Magana and Carlos Perez Guerrero, Zapata y el agrarismo, 5 vols (Mexico City 1952); Alfredo Breceda, Mexico revolucionario, 1913-1917, 2 vols (Madrid 1941); Arturo Warman, We Come to Object, op. cit.; Laura Espel, ed., Emiliano Zapata: Antologia (Mexico City 1988) and Gabriel Garcia Cantu, Utopias Mexicanas (Mexico City 1963). For events in neighouring provinces see Thomas Benjamin, A Rich Land, a Poor People: Politics and Society in Modern Chiapas (Albuquerque 1989); Thomas Benjamin and William McNellie, eds., Other Mexicos: Essays on Regional Mexican History, 1910-1929 (Albuquerque 199o); Manuel Gonzalez Calzada, Historia de la revolucion mexicana en Tabasco (Mexico City 1972); Raymond Buve, `Neither Carranza nor Zapata! The Rise and Fall of the Peasant Movement that Tried to Challenge Both, Tlaxcala, 1910-1919', in Friedrich Katz, ed., Riot, Rebellion and Revolution, op. cit.; Francisco Jose Ruiz Cervantes, La revolucion en Oaxaca: El movimiento de la soberania, 1915-1920 (Mexico City 1986); Luis Espinosa, Defeccion del General Jose Isabel Robles en la Sierra de Ixtlkn, Oaxaca (Mexico City n.d.).
For the loss of Michoacan to Chavez Garcia and others see Veronica Oikion Solano, El constitucionalismo en Michoacan: El periodo de los gobiernos militares (1914-1917) (Mexico City 1992); Fernando Bernitez, Lazaro Cardenas y la revolucion mexicana (Mexico City 1977); Jesus Romero Flores, Historia de la revolucion en Michoacan (Mexico City 1964); Jose Bravo Ugarte, Historia sucinta de Michoacan, 3 vols (Mexico City 1964); Luis Gonzalez y Gonzalez, Pueblo en vilo. Microhistoria de San Jose de Gracia (Mexico City 1972); Enrique Krauze, Caudillos culturales en la revolucion mexicana (Mexico City 1976); C. Bernaldo de Quiros, El bandolerismo en Espana y Mexico (Mexico City 1959). For Zapata's murder see Ettore Pierri, Vida, pasion y muerte de Emiliano Zapata (Mexico City 1979); Octavio Paz, The Labyrinth of Solitude (New York 1985); Roger Parkinson, Zapata: A Biography (1975); Frank Tannenbaum, Peace by Revolution, op. cit.; Ernest Gruening, Mexico and its Heritage (1928).
THE DECLINE OF VILLISMO
Friedrich Katz, Pancho Villa really comes into its own with Villa's later life, presenting a masterly survey of the last eight years. For the late period when Villa was once more a guerrilla, certain primary sources are fundamental: Jose Maria Jaurietta, Sets anos con el General Francisco Villa, 2 vols (Mexico City 1935); Victor Ceja Reyes, Cabalgando con Villa (Chihuahua 1987); A. Perez Mantecon, Recuerdos de un villista: mi campana en la revolucion (Mexico City 1967); Ernest Otto Schuster, Pancho Villa's Shadow: The True Story of Mexico's Robin Hood as Told by His Interpreter (Mexico City 1947).
There is also a lot of useful secondary literature devoted wholly or partly to this period: Federico Cervantes, Francisco Villa y la revolucion, op. cit.; Francisco R. Almada, La revolucion en el estado de Chihuahua, op. cit.; Alberto Calzadiaz Barrera, Villa contra todo y contra todos, 2 vols (Mexico City 1965); and El general Martin Lopez (Mexico City 1975); Lucio Quintero Corral, Pancho Villa derrotado en Tepehuanes, Durango al intentar tomar la ciudad de Durango (Ciudad Juarez 199o); Carlos H. Canto y Canto, Los halcones dorados de Villa (Mexico City 1969); Arturo Langle Ramirez, Cronica de la cobra de Pancho Villa (Mexico City 1973); Oscar W. Ching Veda, La iultima cabalgata de Pancho Villa (Chihuahua 1977); I. Lavretski and Adolfo Gilly, Pancho Villa: Dos ensayos (Mexico City 1978); Manuel Lozoya Cigarroa, Francisco Villa, el grande (Durango 1988); Rafael F. Munoz, Relatos de la revolution (Mexico City 1985); Hernan Robleto, La mascota de Pancho Villa: Episodios de la revolucion mexicana (Mexico City 1960); Elias L. Torres, 20 vibrantes episodios de la vida de Villa (Mexico City 1934); Torres, Vida y Hazanas de Francisco Villa (Mexico City 1975); Juan Bautista Vargas Arreola, A Sangre y fuego con Pancho Villa (Mexico City 1988).
Since Villa was a constant thorn in the side of the United States in the years 19x6-2o, not surprisingly many relevant studies involve the American factor. See Martin Luis Guzman, The Border and the Revolution (New Mexico 1990); Charles H. Harris and Louis R. Sadler, The Border and the Revolution: Clandestine Activities of the Mexican Revolution, 1910-1920
(New Mexico 1988); Gene Z. Hanrahan, Counter Revolution along the Border (1983); Thomas H. Naylor, `Massacre at San Pedro de Cueva: The Significance of Pancho Villa's Disastrous Sonora Campaign', Western Historial Quarterly 8 (1977); Daniel Nugent, ed., Rural Revolt in Mexico and US Intervention (San Diego 1988); Americo Paredes, A Texas-Mexican Cancionero: Folksongs of the Lower Border (Urbana, Illinois 1976); James A. Sandoz, `Northern Separatism during the Mexican Revolution: An Inquiry into the Role of Drug Trafficking, 1919-1920', Americas 41 (1984), pp. 119-214; Noe Palomares, Proprietar- ios norteamericanos y reforma agraria en Chihuahua, 1917-1942 (Ciudad Juarez 1992); Oscar J. Martinez, Fragments of the Mexican Revolution: Personal Accounts from the Border (Albuquerque 1983).
With the death of Felipe Angeles and Carranza, two more of the giants of the Mexican Revolution had perished while Villa still survived. For Angeles's end see Adolfo Gilly, `Felipe Angeles camina hacia la muerte', in Odile Guilpain, Felipe Angeles y los destinos de la revolucion mexicana (Mexico City 1991); Ignacio Solares, La noche de Angeles (Mexico City 1991); Alvaro Matute, ed., Documentos relativos al general Felipe Angeles, op. cit.; Federico Cervantes, Felipe Angeles en la revolucion, op. cit.; Matthew Slattery, Felipe Angeles and the Mexican Revolution, op. cit. For the last days of the Carranza's regime and Carranza's assassination see Armando de Maria y Campos, Mugica: Cronica biografica aportacion an la historia de la revolucion mexicana, op. cit.; Luis Prieto Reyes et al., VII jornadas de historia occidente: Francisco 1. Mugica (Michoacan 1993); Martin Luis Guzman, Muertes historicas (Mexico City 199o); Francisco Serralde, Los sucesos de Tlaxcalantongo y la muerte del ex-presidente de la repicblica C. Venustiano Carranza (Mexico City 1921); Miguel Marquez, El verdadero Tlaxcalantongo (Mexico City 1941); John W. F. Dulles, Yesterday in Mexico, op. cit.; Ramon Beteta, Camino a Tlaxcalantongo (Mexico City 1961); Fernando Benitez, El rey viejo (Mexico City 1959); Francisco L. Urquizo, Asesinato de Carranza (Mexico City 1959). For the role of de la Huerta in securing amnesty for Villa see Roberto Guzman Esparza, Memorias de don Adolfo de la Huerta (Mexico City 1957).