5.
Hunt, op. cit. The intelligence coordinating center referred to in the text is the Pentagon’s Joint Intelligence Objectives Agency (JIOA), which is discussed in Chapter Three; for correspondence concerning suppression of records on Nazi past of scientists, see JIOA Deputy Director Walter Rozamus letter to Intelligence Division, U.S. Army General Staff, November 18, 1947. For Wev quote: JIOA Director Bosquet Wev to General S. J. Chamberlin, director of intelligence for War Department General Staff (G-2), July 2, 1947 (secret), both cited in Hunt, op. cit.
6.
E. H. Cookridge (Edward Spiro), Gehlen (New York: Random House, 1971), pp. 121–25.
7.
Author’s interview with Victor Marchetti, June 7, 1984.
8.
For discussion of cold war plans for use of Soviet bloc émigrés in guerrilla operations, including George Kennan’s role, see Joint Strategic Plans Committee (JSPC), “Proposal for the Establishment of a Guerrilla Warfare School and a Guerrilla Warfare Corps” (JSPC 862/3), August 2, 1948 (top secret), P&O 352 TS (Section 1, Case 1), RG 319, NA; Kennan correspondence with General Alfred Gruenther, April 27, 1948 (secret) in P&O 091.714 TS (Section 1, Case 1), RG 319, NA; and JSPC “Joint Outline War Plans for Determination of Mobilization Requirements for War Beginning 1 July 1949” (JSPC 891/6), September 17, 1948 (top secret), with discussion of Vlasov and psychological warfare at Appendix “E,” p. 36, in P&O 370.1 TS (Case 7, Part IA, Sub No. 13), RG 319, NA.
On controversy over Waffen SS discussed in footnote, see Eugene Davidson, The Trial of the Germans (New York: Macmillan, 1966), pp. 15–17, 553; or particularly Kurt Tauber, Beyond Eagle and Swastika (Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 1967), vol. I, p. 332ff.
9.
The CIA’s role in propaganda operations in the United States, including those employing former Nazi collaborators, is examined in detail in Chapters Fourteen, Fifteen, and Seventeen. For government records concerning payments to émigré leaders, see James R. Price, Radio Free Europe: A Survey and Analysis (Washington, D.C.: Congressional Research Service document no. JX 1710 USB, March 1972), pp. 9–10, and the following correspondence obtained through the Freedom of Information Act: Uldis Grava (American Latvian Association) to President Richard Nixon, January 4, 1972; Lucius D. Clay (Radio Free Europe) to Secretary of State Henry Kissinger, October 7, 1971; Kissinger’s reply to Clay, November 1, 1971, and attached correspondence, Department of State FOIA Case No. 8404249, September 25, 1986.
10.
The spearhead of this publicity campaign was known as the Crusade for Freedom, although it also included a number of subordinate efforts detailed in Chapter Fifteen. On the CFF, see Mickelson, op. cit., pp. 41 and 53–58; Larry Collins, “The Free Europe Committee: American Weapon of the Cold War,” (1975) Carlton University doctoral thesis, Canadian Thesis on Microfilm Service, call no. TC 20090, p. 256ff.; and Free Europe Committee, Inc., President’s Report (New York: 1953).
11.
For staffing of the Assembly of Captive European Nations (ACEN), see Assembly of Captive European Nations, First Session: Organization, Resolutions, Reports, Debate (New York: ACEN publication No. 5, 1955), p. 177ff. Note roles of Hasan Dosti (p. 180), Alfreds Berzins (p. 183), and Boleslavs Maikovskis (p. 186). For information concerning wartime role of these individuals, see Ralph Blumenthal, “Axis Supporters Enlisted by U.S. in Postwar Role: Albanians Said to Have Been Spies in the Balkans,” New York Times, June 20, 1982 (on Dosti); Central Registry of War Criminals and Security Suspects (CROWCASS), Wanted List No. 14, Berlin Command, Office of Military Government U.S. 11/46, p. 14 (on Berzins); U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Special Investigations, Digest of Cases in Litigation July 1, 1984 (Washington, D.C.: 1984), pp. 34–35 (on Maikovskis). Concerning certain Ukrainian fraternal groups, see Ralph Blumenthal, “CIA Accused of Aid to ’30s Terrorist,” New York Times, February 6, 1986, and Joe Conason, “To Catch a Nazi,” Village Voice (February 11, 1986) both of which concern the case of noted Ukrainian émigré leader Mykola Lebed. On Daugavas Vanagi, see Daugavas Vanagi Biletens, no. 4 and no. 10 (1951), (at the New York Public Library, which identifies Berzins as a member of its central committee and editor of its journal; on Berzins’s wartime career, see CROWCASS entry cited above. At least three other senior Vanagi leaders have also been accused of war crimes.
12.
For Walter Lippmann quote, see Senator Charles Mathias, “Ethnic Groups and Foreign Policy,” Foreign Affairs (Summer 1981), p. 982.
Chapter Two
1.
Control Council Law No. 10 (Berlin, December 20, 1945) is published in Leon Friedman, ed., The Law of War: A Documentary History (New York, Random House, 1972), together with considerable other documentation tracing the evolution of these concepts. See also, Morris Greenspan, The Soldier’s Guide to the Laws of War (Washington, D.C.: Public Affairs Press, 1969).
2.
There is an extensive literature on the Nazi war on the eastern front and on the Holocaust in German-occupied territories. For reliable studies used in the preparation of the present text, see Lucy Dawidowiscz, The War Against the Jews (New York: Bantam, 1976), pp. 537–41; Martin Gilbert, The Holocaust (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1985), hereinafter cited as Gilbert, Holocaust; Nora Levin, The Holocaust (New York: Schocken, 1973), pp. 268-89; Gerald Reitlinger, The House Built on Sand (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1960), pp. 249–56, and Gerald Reitlinger, The SS: Alibi of a Nation (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1981), hereinafter cited as Reitlinger, House, and Reitlinger, SS; World Jewish Congress et al., The Black Book: The Nazi Crime Against the Jewish People (New York: Nexus Press, 1981; reprint of the 1946 edition). Martin Gilbert’s concise Atlas of the Holocaust (New York: Macmillan, 1982), is also excellent, and contains an extensive bibliography, hereinafter cited as Gilbert, Atlas. The best single documentation of Nazi crimes presently available in English is Raul Hilberg’s extraordinary The Destruction of the European Jews (New York: Harper & Row, 1961), particularly pp. 177–256. Hilberg’s book has recently been revised and expanded; the page number citations to the Hilberg book mentioned in the present text, however, are to the original edition.
On Manstein’s order and POW starvation, see Alexander Werth, Russia at War 1941–1945 (New York: Avon, 1965), p. 646, and Davidson, op. cit., p. 568. Gilbert, Holocaust, p. 845, estimates losses of Soviet POWs at about 2,500,000, of whom 1 million were shot and the remainder killed through starvation and exposure. Manstein’s postwar career mentioned in footnote is noted in Hilberg, op. cit., pp. 698 and 710. On the “Commissar Decree,” see Alexander Dallin, German Rule in Russia, 2d ed. (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1981), pp. 30–31 and, on resettlement, p. 255ff., hereinafter cited as Dallin, German Rule. The mass killings at Rasseta and elsewhere are noted in Werth, op. cit., pp. 659–60. The Odessa massacre is described in Gilbert, Holocaust, pp. 217–18, and Hilberg, op. cit., pp. 200–01. On “hundreds of Lidices,” see Werth, op. cit., p. 658ff.
3.
For comment on “humane” methods, see Hilberg, op. cit., p. 210.
4.
The seminal work on political warfare on the eastern front—though perhaps the least available—is Friedrich Buchardt’s top secret manuscript “Die Be-handlung des russichen Problems wahrend der Zeit des national-sozialistischen Regimes in Deutschland” (1946?), originally prepared for British intelligence and later made available to American agencies as well. Based also on author’s interview with Mrs. Buchardt, May 17, 1984. Dallin, German Rule, devotes almost 200 pages to his study of “political warfare” as utilized on the eastern front; see pp. 497–505 and 660–78 for summaries. Reitlinger, House, pp. 248–56, offers valuable insights into the relationship between political warfare and the extermination program; and Matthew Cooper, The Nazi War Against the Soviet Partisans 1941–1944 (New York: Stein & Day, 1979), presents a useful summary of the Osttruppen programs on pp. 109–23.
5.
On Pfleiderer, see Proceedings of the Int
ernational Tribunal (at Nuremberg), vol. VIII, pp. 248–249; by Reitlinger, see Reitlinger, House, pp. 250 and 256.
6.
For SS role of Six and Augsburg, see captured SS Dossiers No. 107480 (Six) and No. 307925 (Augsburg) in the Berlin Document Center.
On Hilger: Alfred Meyer interview, December 30, 1983. See also citations to wartime documentation on Hilger in Chapter Nine.
On Köstring: “Final Interrogation Report: Koestring, Gen D Kav, CG of Volunteer Units,” Seventh U.S. Seventh Army Interrogation Center, SAIC/ FIR/42, September 11, 1945 (confidential), Box 721 A, Entry 179, Enemy POW Interrogation file (MIS-Y) 1943–1945, AC of 5, G-2 Intelligence Division, RG 165, NA, Washington, D.C.
On Herwarth: Hans Heinrich Herwarth von Bittenfeld, Zwischen Hitler und Stalin (Frankfurt: Verlag Ullstein, 1982), and Charles Thayer, Hands Across the Caviar (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1952), pp. 183–200, hereinafter cited as Thayer, Hands.
On Gehlen: Cookridge, op. cit., or citations in Chapter Four.
On Strik-Strikfelt: Wilfried Strik-Strikfelt, Gegen Stalin und Hitler: General Wlassow und die russiche Freiheitsbewegung (Mainz: Hase & Koehler Verlag, 1970); in English, Against Stalin and Hitler, tr. David Footman (New York: John Day Co., 1973).
7.
Werth, op. cit., p. 646.
For account of Vlasov discussed in footnote, see Strik-Strikfelt, op. cit., with quoted portion at pp. 229–30 in the English-language edition; quote concerning execution of Vlasov is on p. 245. For Thorwald quote in footnote, see Jiirgen Thorwald (Heinz Bongartz), Flight in the Winter (New York: Pantheon, 1951), p. 293. See also Jürgen Thorwald, The Illusion: Soviet Soldiers in Hitler’s Armies (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1974), p. 315ff., hereinafter cited as Thorwald, Illusion.
For background and documentation on Vlasov and the Vlasov movement, see particularly Boris Dvinov, Politics of the Russian Emigration (Santa Monica, Calif.: Rand Corporation study No. P-768, 1955), pp. 54–112, and Boris Dvinov, Documents on the Russian Emigration: An Appendix to Rand Paper P-768 (Santa Monica, Calif.: Rand Corporation study No. P-865, 1956), hereinafter cited as Dvinov, Politics of the Russian Emigration and Dvinov, Documents. Also valuable: “Russian ÉMigré Organizations,” United States Political Advisor for Germany, May 10, 1949 (secret), at 861.20262/5–1049 Secret File, State Decimal files, RG 59, NA (this text is based on a U.S. interview with the former chief of Mil Amt “C” of the RSHA, Lieutenant Colonel Werner Ohletz, a senior German Abwehr officer involved in Soviet émigré programs). For data on anti-Semitic activities by Vlasov’s movement, see Grigori Aronson, “Pravda o Vlasovtsakh [“The Truth About the Vlasovites”],” New York, 1949. For a typical contemporary U.S. interrogation of a Vlasov leader, see “Preliminary Interrogation Report, Source: Jung, Igor,” U.S. Seventh Army Interrogation Center, July 12, 1945 (confidential), Box 721-A, Entry 179, MIS-Y Enemy Interrogation Files, 1943–1945, RG 165, NA.
Dallin, German Rule, p. 553ff., and Reitlinger, House, p. 371ff., offer probably the best and most accessible summaries of Vlasov and his army. Joachim Hoffmann, Die Geschichte der Wlassow-Armee (Freiburg im Breisgau: Verlag Rombach, 1984), presents a pro-Vlasov polemic that nevertheless offers many new details concerning the Vlasov movement’s role in the closing months of the war. Although dated, the best single guide to material about Vlasov held in American collections is probably still Michael Schatoff, Bibliography on [the] Vlasov Movement in World War II (New York: All Slavic Publishing House, 1961), in Russian and German, with summaries in English, which focuses primarily on Columbia University’s archives.
8.
Carroll, op. cit.
9.
On Kaminsky troops’ role in Vlasov Army, see Kostring, “Final Interrogation Report.” On this point see also: George H. Stein, The Waffen SS (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1966), pp. 187–88 and 265. See Alexander Dallin, The Kaminsky Brigade 1941–1944 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Russian Research Center, 1956), hereinafter cited as Dallin, Kaminsky. On Kaminsky troops’ role in antipartisan and anti-Semitic activities in Belorussia, see Werth, op. cit., pp. 651–64 passim and 782–83; and Gilbert, Holocaust, p. 298, for discussion of Belorussian police.
For Guderian comment, see Heinz Höhne, The Order of the Death’s Head (New York: Ballantine, 1971), p. 615. For Kaminsky troops’ role in anti-Semitic murders in Warsaw uprising, see Höhne, op. cit., p. 615ff., and Gilbert, Holocaust, p. 717.
10.
For Bossi-Fedrigotti quote, see Dallin, German Rule, p. 519, n. 2. Dallin presents the controversy over Nazi racial politics as it applied to war on the eastern front at length; see pp. 107–304 and 587–636. See also: Dvinov, Politics of the Russian Emigration, Dvinov, Documents, George Fischer, Soviet Opposition to Stalin (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1952), and John A. Armstrong, Ukrainian Nationalism 1939–1945 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1955).
11.
Heygendorff’s comments are drawn from secret studies on use of defectors on the eastern front prepared for U.S. Intelligence by German political warfare experts after the war. Though many such reports remain classified, an important collection of them (including the Heygendorff paper) has been published as part of a twenty-four volume series titled World War II German Military Studies, edited by Donald Detweiler, Burdick, and Rohwer. See also Köstring and Seraphim’s account titled MS C-043: Eastern Nationals as Volunteers in the German Army, in the same series, which reaches much the same conclusion as Heygendorff. For a more extensive collection of the United States’ systematic program to tap German military knowledge, see the Foreign Military Studies records of RG 338, NA, Washington, D.C.
12.
For quotations from Nuremberg tribunals cited in this section, see Trials of War Criminals Before the Nuernberg Military Tribunals Under Control Council Law No. 10 (Washington, D.C: Government Printing Office, 1949–1953), vol. IV, with discussion of the roles of interrogators and Vorkommandos on pp. 523–25 and 575–76.
13.
Strik-Strikfeldt’s post as chief interrogator (under Roenne’s command in Abwehr Group III) is noted in Heinz Höhne and Hermann Zolling, The General Was a Spy (New York: Bantam, 1972), p. 40. See also Cookridge, op. cit., pp. 50–52, 56–67.
14.
Ohlendorf testimony on the Einsatzgruppen appears in an affidavit of April 24, 1947, pp. 92–95, in Trials of War Criminals, loc. cit.
15.
Hilberg’s comments on the role of auxiliaries in killing operations is found in Hilberg, op. cit., pp. 205–06 and 243–46, with Biberstein’s comment on p. 206.
16.
On the CIOS and S Force etc., see: Report of the Combined Intelligence Objectives Subcommittee, (Washington, D.C: Office of Technical Services, U.S. Department of Commerce, 1944), and Doris Canham, History of AMC Intelligence, T-2 (Wright Field, Ohio, 1948). For more accessible summaries, see Clarence Lasby, Project Paperclip (New York: Antheneum, 1975), pp. 18–26; Boris Pash, The Alsos Mission (New York: Award House, 1969), pp. 24, 54, 57–59, and 136; and Michel Bar-Zohar, La Chasse aux Savants Allemands (Paris: Librairie Arthéme Fayard, 1965). See also: “Minutes of Meeting Held 20 December 1944” (re: OSS use of T Forces as cover for “unacknowledgeable activities”) Box 52, Entry 115, Folder 3, RG 226, NA, Washington, D.C.
17.
Pash, op. cit., p. 99; Lasby, op. cit., pp. 16–17. On Alsos, see also Leslie R. Groves, Now It Can Be Told (New York: Harper & Row, 1962), and Samuel Goudsmit, Alsos (New York: n.p., 1947).
Chapter Three
1.
Dornberger’s own account of his wartime career is in Walter Dornberger, V-2 (New York: Viking, 1958). For another flattering view, see Dieter Huzel, Peenemiinde to Canaveral (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1962). For a slave laborer’s perspective, see Jean Michel with Louis Nucera, Dora (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1980). For brief basic biographies of Dornberger, including awards and positions, see R. Turner, ed., The Annual Obituary—1980 (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1980),
and Current Biography 1965, p. 125ff. See Lasby, op. cit., pp. 32, 113, and 259, for basic biography and discussion of work at Wright Field.
2.
Dornberger, op. cit., p. 99ff.
3.
Original documentation concerning conditions at the Nordhausen works is found in the case record of the war crimes trial U.S. Army v. Kurt Andrae et al., August 7 to December 30, 1947, microfilm M1079, NA. On this point see also U.S. Army INSCOM dossier on factory administrator Arthur Rudolph, loc. cit., available through FOIA request. Secondary sources: Pierre Durand, Les Français à Buchenwald et à Dora (Paris: Editions Sociales, c. 1977); Christine Somerhausen, Les Belges dèportes à Dora (Brussels: Centre Guillaume Jacquemyns, 1979); and Michel, op. cit.
4.
On authority at the Nordhausen works, see U.S. Army v. Kurt Andrae et al., loc. cit. Dornberger largely confirms his pivotal role in production scheduling, though ignoring its significance; see Dornberger, op. cit., pp. 211 and 239.
5.
Dornberger, op. cit., p. 259; on Dornberger’s knowledge of atrocities, see “Niederschrift über die Besprechung um 6.5.1944 im Büro Generaldirektor Rickhey [“Transcript Dealing with the Conference of May 6, 1944, in the Office of Director General Rickhey”],” Imperial War Museum, London, reproduced in Eli Rosenbaum, [Arthur] Rudolph: The Speer Analogy (New York: s.p., 1985).
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