70. NCDN, September 18, 1937.
71. NCDN, September 20, 1937.
72. NCDN, September 15, 1937.
73. NCDN, September 20, 1937.
74. Snow, p. 50.
75. NCDN, September 19, 1937.
76. NCDN, September 19, 1937.
77. Christian Science Monitor, November 4, 1937.
78. Ristaino, p. 60, claims that 500,000 refugees were crammed into the International Settlement by early September. This figure seems too large. The Shanghai Public Health Department reported later that by the end of October, nearly two months later, the number of refugees in the city’s 128 camps was 64,189. See, NCDN, November 4, 1937. Although it is very likely that large numbers had not been taken in by the camps and were squatting in the streets, it is hard to believe that they would total more than 400,000.
79. Ristaino, pp. 55, 60–61.
80. North China Herald, September 15, 1937.
81. NCDN, September 19, 1937.
82. NCDN, September 15 and 16, 1937.
83. NCDN, September 13, 1937.
84. NCDN, October 10, 1937.
85. NCDN, September 26, 1937.
86. North China Herald, October 13, 1937.
87. Life, December 20, 1937.
88. NDS, vol. 57, pp. 516–517.
89. DSBS, p. 25; NDS, vol. 8, p. 66.
90. NDS, vol. 8, pp. 66–67.
91. DSBS, p. 25.
92. DSBS, p. 25.
93. Shina jihen rikugun sakusen, 1, Showa jusan nen ichigatsu made, p. 379
94. DSBS, p. 24.
95. NDS, vol. 8, p. 64.
96. The account of Maebara Hisashi’s unit in the Shanghai area is based on NDS, vol. 10, pp. 35–36.
CHAPTER SIX: VERDUN OF THE EAST
1. The following account is based on Huodao Jingfu riji [ Ogishima Shizuo’s Diary]. Xindian, Taiwan: Lixu wenhua, 2005, pp. 44–56.
2. Shina jihen rikugun sakusen, 1, Showa jusan nen ichi gatsu made, p. 379.
3. Hattori Satoshi with Edward J. Drea. “Japanese Operations from July to December 1937,” in The Battle for China, pp. 172, 512.
4. Shina jihen rikugun sakusen, 1, Showa jusan nen ichi gatsu made, p. 380.
5. Chen Cheng, 1987, p. 15.
6. DSBS, p. 26.
7. Hattori, pp. 173–174.
8. DSBS, p. 26.
9. NDS, vol. 8, p. 85.
10. NDS, vol. 8, pp. 85–86.
11. Yan Yinggao. “Yu Wenzaobang zhendi gongcunwang” [“Defending the Wusong Creek Front with One’s Life”], in BSK, pp. 280–281. 12.
12. Contemporary sources often referred to it as the Salt Division because it was funded by the revenues from the government’s salt monopoly.
13. Shen Keqin. Sun Liren zhuan [Biography of Sun Limn]. Taipei: Taiwan xuesheng shuju, 2005, vol. 1, p. 98.
14. Huang Jie. “Wenzaobang, Suzhouhe zhandou” [“The Battles for Wusong and Suzhou Creeks”], in BSK, pp. 191–192.
15. Guijun yu Songhu Kangzhan [ The Guangxi Troops in the Songhu Battle]. Shanghai: Shanghai Songhu Kangzhan Jinianguan, 2011, p. 58; DSBS, p. 29.
16. Schenke, Wolf. Reise anddergelben Front. Berlin: Gerhard Stalling Verlagsbuch handlung, 1941, p. 246.
17. Guijun yu Songhu Kangzhan, p. 58.
18. DSBS, pp. 26–27.
19. DSBS, p. 43.
20. NDS, vol. 61, pp. 504–505.
21. NDS, vol. 10, pp. 210–211.
22. NCDN, August 26, 1937.
23. NDS, vol. 8, p. 46.
24. Teitler et al., p. 147.
25. Zhang Fakui, p. 481
26. NCDN, October 31, 1937.
27. NCDN, August 25, 1937.
28. Brook, Timothy. Collaboration: Japanese Agents and Local Elites in Wartime China. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 2005, p. 93.
29. Teitler et al., p. 147.
30. Abegg, p. 205. Abegg mentions two Soviet volunteer pilots fighting on the Chinese side who parachuted from their burning aircraft and met a similar fate because they were mistaken for Japanese (ibid.). This source must be treated with some caution. While Germany was not a formal ally of the Japanese in 1937, by the time of the publication of the book, they were joined in the Axis. However, it strengthens the credibility of Abegg’s account that she contrasts the harsh treatment of Japanese POWs in Nationalist areas with the much more lenient policy in regions controlled by the Communists, pp. 206–207.
31. Kalyagin, p. 228. This was equivalent to between 15 and 30 U.S. dollars at the exchange rate at the time.
32. Shen, vol. 1, pp. 98–99.
33. Shen, vol. 1, p. 99.
34. DSBS, p. 26.
35. Farmer, p. 81.
36. Sun Shengzhi. “Pudong paobing xianshenwei” [“The Invincible Might of the Pudong Artillery”], in BSK, pp. 228–229.
37. DSBS, pp. 30, 47–48.
38. Snow, pp. 46–47.
39. Snow, p. 47.
40. Schenke, pp. 19–20.
41. Alcott, p. 149.
42. See chapter 8. At least one Japanese journalist lost his life in the battle of Shanghai. Iwakura Tomokata, a feature writer for the Hochi daily, was killed by a Chinese shell in mid-October. See, NCDN, October 16, 1937.
43. The account of Kuse Hisao’s participation in the attack on Chenjiahang is based on NDS, vol. 60, pp. 184–186.
44. Kuse Hisao spent the next six weeks at a field hospital. He was returned to his unit on November 24 to take part in the assault on Nanjing. NDS, vol. 60, p. 187.
45. Guijun yu Songhu Kangzhan, p. 53.
46. DSBS, p. 25.
47. Guijun yu Songhu Kangzhan, p. 54.
48. Liu Weikai. “Luoyang Qiao xuezhanji” [“Account of the Bloody Battle of Luoyang Bridge”], in BSK, p. 312.
49. NDS, vol. 8, p. 96.
50. NDS, vol. 8, p. 97.
51. NDS, vol. 8, p. 99.
52. NDS, vol. 8, p. 95.
53. NDS, vol. 8, pp. 97, 103.
54. NDS, vol. 8, p. 103.
55. Associated Press, “China Accuses Japan of Using War Gas,” in the Christian Science Monitor, October 15, 1937.
56. Zhang Fakui, p. 481.
57. Zhongguo dier lishi dang’an guan, p. 452.
58. Tanisuga Shizuo, a gas specialist, recalled using gas hand grenades in China later in the war, but it appears from his account that this was a non-lethal type of gas. See, Cook, Haruko Taya et al. Japan at War. New York: The New Press, 1992, pp. 44–46.
59. Teitler et al., pp. 138, 146.
60. NCDN, September 27, 1937.
61. Teitler et al., pp. 138–139. While de Fremery remained convinced that China did not wage gas warfare, later in the war he became less sure of Japanese innocence in this respect. See ibid., p. 218.
62. This and the following paragraphs are based on Huodao Jingfu riji, pp. 58–63.
63. Cook, pp. 31–32.
64. NDS, vol. 60, pp. 140–142.
65. NDS, vol. 60, p. 140.
66. Quoted from Barnhart, p. 123.
67. Sun Youli, pp. 93–94.
68. Mohr, pp. 18–19.
69. Guijun yu Songhu Kangzhan, p. 58.
70. NDS, vol. 8, p. 105.
71. Guijun yu Songhu Kangzhan, p. 61.
72. Guijun yu Songhu Kangzhan, pp. 61–62.
73. Guijun yu Songhu Kangzhan, p. 63.
74. Guijun yu Songhu Kangzhan, p. 64–65
75. Lan Xiangshan. “Guijun canzhan jianwen” [“Information about the Guangxi Troops’ Participation in the War”], in BSK, p. 320.
76. Lan Xiangshan, p. 320.
77. DSBS, pp. 27–28.
CHAPTER SEVEN: THE “LOST BATTALION”
1. The following account is based on Zhang Boting, pp. 140–142.
2. Zhang Boting’s account mistakenly refers to an upcoming meeting of the League of Nations as the rationale for keeping the 88th Division in Zhabei.
3. Zhang Boting was referring to the Chinese habit of repeatedly adding hot water to the same glass of tea in order to make it
last.
4. Shina jihen rikugun sakusen, 1, Showa jusan nen ichi gatsu made, p. 380; NDS, vol. 8, pp. 107–108.
5. NDS, vol. 8, p. 108.
6. A similar phenomenon was observed on the Western Front in 1918, when tactical innovations suddenly made mobile warfare possible again after more than three years of positional warfare. Many soldiers reported difficulties adjusting.
7. NDS, vol. 8, pp. 108–109.
8. DSBS, p. 31.
9. Christian Science Monitor, October 22, 1937.
10. DSBS, p. 31.
11. Carlson, E. F. Twin Stars of China. Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 2003, p. 27.
12. Xiangjunyu Songhu Kangzhan [The Hunan Troops in the Songhu Battle]. Shanghai: Shanghai Songhu Kangzhan Jinianguan, 2010, p. 85.
13. Zhongguo dier lishi dang’an guan, vol. 1, p. 399.
14. Xiangjun yu Songhu Kangzhan, pp. 85–86.
15. NCDN, October 26, 1937.
16. Farmer, p. 85.
17. DSBS, p. 32.
18. Xiangjun yu Songhu Kangzhan, p. 86; DSBS, p. 32.
19. NDS, vol. 8, pp. 109.
20. For example, Sun Liren of the Tax Police Division, talked dismissively of “a certain division” which “collapsed the moment it came into touch with the enemy,” Shen Keqin, vol. 1, p. 103.
21. Xiangjun yu Songhu Kangzhan, pp. 86, 148.
22. Oliver, p. 147.
23. Farmer, p. 85.
24. The Washington Post, November 28, 1937.
25. NCDN, October 28, 1937.
26. DSBS, p. 36.
27. Yang Ruifu. “Gujun fendou siriji” [“Account of the Lone Unit’s Four Days of Battle”], in BSK, p. 153.
28. DSBS, p. 33.
29. NCDN, October 28, 1937.
30. DSBS, p. 32. The German author also attributes the Japanese failure to act to the peculiar reluctance to engage in night fighting that characterized their conduct in Shanghai. However, this is not entirely convincing given the fact that large parts of Zhabei must have been as light as in the daytime because of the numerous fires.
31. Farmer, p. 85.
32. Farmer, pp. 81–82.
33. Farmer, p. 86.
34. Yang Ruifu, p. 152.
35. Yang Ruifu, pp. 150–152.
36. Yang Ruifu, p. 153.
37. Yang Ruifu, pp. 153–154.
38. Yuan Ying, vol. 1, p. 4.
39. Farmer, p. 86.
40. Yang Ruifu, p. 154.
41. Yang Ruifu, p. 155.
42. Yang Ruifu, p. 157. The Chinese government was keen to achieve maximum propaganda mileage from the defense of the warehouse, turning out, among other things, a major motion picture the year after.
43. Zhang Fakui, p. 481.
44. Li Tsung-jen et al., p. 326.
45. Li Tsung-jen et al., pp. 324, 326.
46. Zhang Fakui, pp. 482–483.
47. The Washington Post, November 28, 1937.
48. NCDN, October 28, 1937.
49. NCDN, October 29, 1937.
50. North China Herald, November 3, 1937.
51. Ristaino, pp. 62–63.
52. The account of Yang Huimin’s exploits is based on Sun Yuanliang, pp. 225–227.
53. Yang Ruifu, p. 158.
54. Zhang Boting, p. 143.
55. Shanghai Municipal Police files show Yang Hu became a millionaire due to the fortune he amassed as defense commissioner. See, Martin, Brian G. The Shanghai Green Gang: Politics and Organized Crime 1919–1937. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996, p. 168.
56. Zhang Boting, pp. 144–145.
57. NCDN, November 1, 1937.
58. Yang Ruifu, p. 163.
59. Yuan Ying et al., vol. 1, p. 5.
60. Bruce, p. 67.
61. Teitler, pp. 147–148.
62. Farmer, p. 78.
63. NCDN, September 12, 1937.
64. Farmer, p. 77.
65. NCDN, September 14, 1937.
66. Feng Yuxiang, p. 78.
67. NCDN, September 14, 1937.
68. Feng Yuxiang, p. 78.
69. Qin Xiaoyi, p. 205.
70. Abegg, p. 166.
71. Abegg, p. 165.
72. Williamsen, Marvin. “The Military Dimension 1937–1941,” in Hsiung, James C. et al. (eds.). China’s Bitter Victory: The War with Japan 1937–1945. Armonk NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1992, p. 148.
73. Abegg p. 166.
74. White, Theodore H. et al. Thunder Out of China. New York: William Sloane Associates, 1946, p. 134.
75. White, p. 138.
76. “Japanese Military Medicine,” in Intelligence Bulletin. Washington DC: War Department, March, 1946, p. 88.
77. Aso Tetsuo. From Shanghai to Shanghai: The War Diary of an Imperial Japanese Army Medical Officer 1937–1941. Norwalk CT: Eastbridge, 2004, p. 22.
78. Goette, pp. 43–45. It is worth noting that this book was published in the United States in 1943, at a time of strong anti-Japanese sentiment, making its claims all the more believable.
79. NDS, vol. 8, p. 61.
80. Cook, et al., p. 32.
81. Teitler et al., p. 114.
82. DSBS, p. 35.
83. DSBS, p. 36; Teitler et al., p. 1 14; NDS, vol. 10, p. 213.
84. DSBS, p. 36.
85. NDS, vol. 8, p. 113.
86. DSBS, p. 36.
87. Shina jihen rikugun sakusen, 1, Showa jusan nen ichi gatsu made, p. 381; DSBS, p. 37; NDS, vol. 8, p. 115.
88. Associated Press, October 31, 1937.
89. Teitler et al., pp. 117–118.
90. DSBS, pp. 37–38.
91. The account of the Tax Police Division’s actions at Zhoujiaqiao is based on Shen Keqin, vol. 1, pp. 103–106.
92. DSBS, p. 38.
93. NDS, vol. 8, p. 118.
94. Shina jihen rikugun sakusen, 1, Showa jusan nen ichi gatsu made, pp. 385–386.
95. Guo Rukui, p. 570; Shina jihen rikugun sakusen, 1, Showa jusan nen ichi gatsu made, p. 388.
96. NDS, vol. 62, pp. 13–14.
97. NDS, vol. 62, pp. 13–14.
98. NDS, vol. 8, pp. 95–96.
99. NDS, vol. 8, p. 120.
100. NDS, vol. 62, p. 17.
101. NDS, vol. 62, p. 16.
102. NDS, vol. 62, p. 16.
CHAPTER EIGHT: COLLAPSE
1. Soon after the campaign, Tamai Katsunori published a highly popular account of the Hangzhou Bay landing and the subsequent battles, using the pen name Hino Ashihe1.
2. The account is based on Hino’s description of the landing in Hino Ashihei. Wheat and Soldiers. New York: Farrar & Rinehart, 1939, pp. 41–68, supplemented by details from the German translation, Weizen und Soldaten. Leipzig: Paul List Verlag 1940, pp. 37–63.
3. Hino, Wheat and Soldiers, p. 59.
4. NDS, vol. 62, p. 19.
5. NDS, vol. 62, p. 17.
6. NDS, vol. 62, p. 18. Fear of Chinese snipers had already forced Japanese officers to remove their insignia earlier in the Shanghai campaign. See, Drea, Edward J. In the Service of the Emperor: Essays on the Imperial Japanese Army. Lincoln NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1998, p. 98.
7. Jiang Jingguo. Kangri Yuwu [Resisting Japanese Aggression]. Taipei: Liming wen-hua, 1978, vol. 5, p. 63.
8. Jiang Jingguo, Kangri Yuwu, vol. 5, p. 63.
9. DSBS, p. 48.
10. DSBS, p. 48; Jiang Jingguo, Kangri Yuwu, vol. 5, pp. 62–63.
11. Sun Shengzhi, p. 232.
12. Cao Jianlang, p. 578; Dai Feng et al., p. 120.
13. Zhang Fakui, pp. 483–484.
14. DSBS, p. 45. This type of reasoning in the face of a surprise enemy landing is not unheard of in military history, as the German reaction to the Normandy invasion in June 1944 shows.
15. DSBS, p. 45.
16. DSBS, pp. 45, 48.
17. DSBS, p. 43.
18. DSBS, p. 45
19. The account of Sone Kazui’s experiences at Suzhou Creek is based on NDS, vol. 10, pp. 213–217.
20. NDS, vol. 61, p. 576.
21. NDS, vol. 62, pp. 19–20.
22. Jiang Jingguo, Kangri Yuwu, vol. 5, pp. 64–65.
23. NDS, vol. 62, p. 20.
24. NDS, vol. 62, p. 21.
25. Dai Feng et al., p. 126.
26. These included the 26th, 55th, 61st, 62nd, 79th, 107th and 108th Infantry Divisions as well as the 45th Independent Brigade. Dai Feng et al., p. 124; Wang Daoping (ed.), vol. 2., p. 148.
27. Dai Feng et al., pp. 124–125.
28. Dai Feng et al., pp. 126–127.
29. Jiang Jingguo, Kangri Yuwu, vol. 5, pp. 66.
30. Dai Feng et al., p. 127.
31. Gibson, Michael Richard. Chiang Kai-shek’s Central Army, unpublished Ph. D. thesis, George Washington University, 1985, p. 385.
32. Sun Shengzhi, p. 232.
33. Li Junsan, p. 152.
34. Chen Cheng. Chen Chen Huiyilu—Kanri zhanzheng [Chen Cheng’s Memoirs: The War of Resistance against Japan]. Beijing: Dongfang chuhanshe, 2009, p. 38.
35. Chiang Kai-shek, Kunmianji, p. 584.
36. Chiang Kai-shek, Kunmianji, p. 584.
37. Zhang Fakui, p. 484.
38. Zhang Fakui, p. 485.
39. Chiang Kai-shek did follow through with some of his threats. In early 1938, he ordered the execution of Han Fuju, the military governor of east China’s Shandong province, for dereliction of duty.
40. Jiang Gong sixiang yanlun zongji [A Collection of President Jiang’s Thoughts and Speeches]. Taipei, vol. 15, p. 545.
41. The account of the early combat near the bridge at Sheshan is based on NDS, vol. 62, pp. 147–149.
42. NDS, vol. 62, p. 27.
43. NDS, vol. 62, p. 28.
44. NDS, vol. 62, pp. 154, 157.
45. NDS, vol. 62, p. 29.
46. NDS, vol. 62, p. 159.
47. NDS, vol. 62, p. 155.
48. NDS, vol. 62, p. 29.
49. NDS, vol. 62, p. 155.
50. Abend Hallett. “Chinese in Orderly Retreat,” The New York Times, November 9, 1937; Jiang Zhongzheng (ed.), vol. 3, p. 189.
51. Jiang Zhongzheng (ed.), vol. 3, pp. 189, 191.
52. Carlson, E. F., Twin Stars of China, p. 23.
53. Abend, Hallett. “Shanghai French Beat Off Refugees,” The New York Times, November 10, 1937.
54. Zhang Fakui, p. 489.
55. Zhang Fakui, p. 488.
56. The description is based on a photograph from the Acme news agency, early November 1937.
57. NCDN, November 10, 1937.
58. North China Herald, November 3, 1937.
59. Abend, Hallett. “Shanghai French Beat Off Refugees,” The New York Times, November 10, 1937.
60. NCDN, November 10, 1937.
61. Ristaino, p. 63.
Shanghai 1937: Stalingrad on the Yangtze Page 34