by Shana Priwer
While textbooks and teachers were scarce, Leonardo still loved to read. Though his formal schooling probably didn't go past a primary grade, he took advantage of friends' and relatives' libraries. After moving in with his grandfather, he was probably home-schooled in math, science, reading, and writing. Amazingly, he learned physics and anatomy more or less on his own.
Leonardo certainly wasn't the only artist who didn't go to college. Many others were self-educated, which goes to show that if you want to strike it big, you need to get out there and do what needs to be done. Michelangelo Buonarroti, another one of the Renaissance's greatest artists and architects, didn't have much formal instruction either, but he persevered and ultimately carved his own distinct place in history. Schooling or no schooling, great artists such as Michelangelo and Leonardo quickly gained skill and talent far beyond what most achieve in a lifetime.
10
Apprenticeship, or learning from your elders
When Leonardo was sixteen (in 1468), his paternal grandfather died and his remaining family moved to Florence. This move would ultimately be of great importance to Leonardo's career; Florence was home to many of the best artists of the day, including Andrea Verrocchio (1435–1488). Art took many forms during the Renaissance, and Verrocchio was not only a master of painting, but also sculpture, goldsmithing, music, and other arts. No doubt, Leonardo's father made a smart move by securing his son an apprenticeship with such a great master.
Florence in the mid-fifteenth century was a haven for up-and-coming artists; imagine a loose parallel to Greenwich Village in New York City. Except in those days, patrons worked more closely with artisans. Artists held high social positions, were well respected, and often mingled with powerful Italian families. By the mid-1470s, Florence was home to more than fifty stoneworking shops and close to thirty master painting studios. For a student like Leonardo, there was no better place to be.
But Leonardo wasn't the only star in the sky. Verrocchio had other students, including Sandro Botticelli. Still, apprenticeship did have its advantages for Leonardo. There was a fairly established program for the skills interns had to learn, and Leonardo studied the technical aspects of painting, including how to grind and mix pigments into various paint colors. He probably also studied color theory, learning which colors combine to form other colors, how saturation could contribute to different tones, and so on. You can't paint if you don't know the fundamentals, and Leonardo certainly learned them well.
This crucial internship covered the basics of painting on wood panels. Leonardo was probably also exposed to canvas techniques, including how to stretch and prepare canvases for painting and how different materials would accept paint in different ways. Leonardo also got his first introduction to casting in bronze, a skill he mastered later on down the road. He certainly learned bronze casting from one of the best—Verrocchio was responsible for some of the greatest bronzes the world had ever seen, such as his David and his equestrian statue with Bartolomeo Colleoni. He also created bronzes of many saints, including St. John and St. Peter. In addition to metalworking in 3-D, Verrocchio produced bronze relief sculptures, quite common at the time. To put it in modern terms, Verrocchio's studio was the Harvard of the Renaissance.
Leonardo's apprenticeship in Verrocchio's studio lasted until about 1472. At that time he was admitted to the Company of Painters, Florence's painting guild. Probably eager to test the waters on his own, Leonardo had the opportunity to branch out as an independent artist. But he didn't give up all ties to Verrocchio's workshop, probably because he wanted to further his education and continue his association with the master.
Collaboration on paintings was not uncommon at this time; a patron might provide the general direction for a piece of art; sometimes entire studios (masters and apprentices) worked together on a single painting. Leonardo assisted Verrocchio with at least one of his great works, The Baptism of Christ, in 1472. The two artists also collaborated on other works, including the Madonna di Piazza (1474). Though Leonardo must have gradually evolved from a student to an equal in Verrocchio's eyes, he didn't come into his own until he started working alone.
11
Turning dust into gold: Early painting experience
Leonardo da Vinci probably got his first formal exposure to artists' technical tools during his apprenticeship to Andrea Verrocchio (see number 10). As already mentioned, artists in the fifteenth century had to make their paints from scratch. Leonardo much preferred oil paint because it allowed subtle variations in the colors that just weren't possible with tempera.
The science of mixing oil paints was intense; it certainly wasn't a simple skill. The paint had to be colored, and it also had to adhere properly to the painted surface. Paint is a type of emulsion (a liquid suspension where oil and water are mixed together, suspending the oil in the water). Look closely the next time you reach for a bottle of oil-and-vinegar salad dressing; you'll notice the seasonings floating to the top. That mixture is a suspension. Milk contains lots of fat droplets, which spread out over a glass or bottle; they never fully mix and create another type of suspension called an emulsion. Paint is a colloid, a particular sort of emulsion containing solids (pigment) suspended in a liquid (oil + binders). Complicated stuff, and Leonardo had to learn it well!
In Leonardo's first year at Andrea Verrocchio's shop, he likely worked as a garzone (a sort of servant). While he had cleaning and other menial tasks to perform, one of his most important jobs would have been making paint. At the time, pigments came from a variety of natural sources: Plants and minerals provided the greatest variety of colors. Leonardo would have spent hours washing and then hand grinding local Italian minerals. Doesn't sound like much fun, but important work, nevertheless. Iron was a commonly available mineral during this period, as was terra verte (found mostly near Verona, Italy). Renaissance painters didn't have dust masks or any way to keep from inhaling airborne particles; they would just measure an amount of pigment onto their grinding surface, add water into the middle of the pile, then start to grind. And they probably had to be careful not to sneeze!
Color alone isn't enough to make paint; you need to mix it with a medium (like oil or water) that will carry the color and dry along with it. A third substance makes the color adhere to the oil or water. During the Renaissance, most artists used animal products, such as eggs, animal glue, or milk, as binding agents to stick the paint to the wood, canvas, or wall surface. After grinding the pigments into a thick paste, Leonardo would have either added the color and the other requisite ingredients to the oil to make paint to use right away, or else he'd have stored it carefully for later use.
Leonardo improved the technique of creating oil paintings by mixing ground pigments with linseed oil and adding beeswax and water to the paint while it was in a boiling stage; this additive kept the colors light and prevented oversaturation. As you'll see later, some of his painting innovations were more successful than others. More important than the new techniques, though, was the fact that he used oil paint extensively, which caused a ripple effect throughout the artistic community. Given how successful his paintings were, it's not surprising that people wanted to copy his techniques!
In addition to painting, Leonardo almost certainly learned how to make and draw with chalk while apprenticed to Verrocchio. In Renaissance Italy, mineral chalks were dug out of the ground and fashioned into drawing tools. Red and brown chalks (common earth tones) were the most popular, and Leonardo used those most in his later chalk drawings.
12
Getting off to a good start
Leonardo's period with Verrocchio (1468–1472) was his first foray into professional art. While apprentices often worked with their masters on commissioned projects, most of these students didn't go on to outshine their teachers! Then again, most of the students weren't Leonardo da Vinci, either.
The first real tip-off to Leonardo's talents came when he worked on a painting called The Baptism of Christ, completed in 1472. Andrea Verrocchio was th
e official painter, but Leonardo also took part. The monks from the Florentine church of San Salvi requested the painting, and many members of Verrocchio's studio worked on it. Though apprentices like Leonardo had to do office duty and other routine tasks, they also got to help on the master's jobs. In this painting, Verrocchio probably painted Christ and John the Baptist. Although written documentation is slim, it's thought that Da Vinci did some of the landscape and added a kneeling angel supporting the mantle. This figure appears more lifelike than the others; the angel's expression, hair, and clothing are particularly detailed. The angel in question was also painted in oil, Leonardo's paint of choice, whereas much of the remainder of the painting was done in tempera.
Using diagnostic technology to examine this painting, historians have essentially proved that Verrocchio did a master sketch before applying paint. From these tests, you can see that Leonardo strayed from this overall scheme and took liberties with his portion of the painting. You can also see that Leonardo's rendering of the landscape, full of shadows and bright sunlight, is different from the parts Verrocchio painted. Even at this early point in his career, Leonardo was using his own creativity and invention rather than simply following orders. That kind of attitude worked because he was highly skilled. Still, we'll never know if Verrocchio was angry or pleased with Leonardo's changes to his initial design.
Leonardo often made clay study-models of figures before committing them to canvas or wood. In the case of the angel in this painting, Leonardo probably made a clay model and then painted from the model. This technique might explain the apparent stiffness in the folds of the cloth draping Leonardo's angel, but it speaks volumes about Leonardo's willingness to experiment. And, of course, Leonardo was right—the best way to learn to paint something is to study it in 3-D!
While Verrocchio's work didn't exactly pale in comparison to Leonardo's, it was clear from this early work that Leonardo's painting abilities would eventually surpass those of his master. In fact, one story (which may or may not be true) has it that Verrocchio actually swore to give up painting when he saw Leonardo's work, since he knew he could never be that good! But even if that story were true, Verrocchio was an artist skilled in many areas, and he could just as easily have focused his talents on metalsmithing, sculpture, and bronzing. Fortunately for Verrocchio's ego, Leonardo didn't develop his skills in those areas until later!
Besides Verrocchio and Leonardo, a number of other well-known collaborators, including Sandro Botticelli and Lorenzo di Credi, were involved with the creation of The Baptism of Christ. Many of these artists would eventually become famous in their own rights. This masterpiece remained at the monastery in San Salvi until 1530, and it currently resides in the Uffizi Gallery in Florence.
13
The Company of Painters: Membership has its privileges
With the success of The Baptism of Christ (see number 12), Leonardo's confidence probably hit a high point. His work was recognized far and wide, and this realization may have given him a push to leave Verrocchio's studio and strike out on his own. Though most artists based their own styles on those of their masters, Leonardo was clearly branching out and discovering his individual talents.
In 1472, Leonardo joined the Company of Painters. This group belonged to one of many guilds that existed in Italy during the Renaissance. The notion of the guild (an association, usually for either religious, craft, or business purposes) had been around since the first century, but guilds became more popular during the Middle Ages. Guilds gave artists opportunities to get together, share techniques, and provide mutual protection. They were a common resource for patrons, too.
The main types of guilds in the pre-Renaissance era were merchant and craft; merchant guilds were for businessmen, and craft guilds were for painters, architects, sculptors, and other artists. A cross between a club and a users' group, guilds provided a common interest base and promoted the development of specific trades. Generally speaking, each major city had a guild for each art. And these guilds weren't just social affairs! In some cities, guilds would design entire public-works projects.
The Company of Painters had many benefits for its members—for starters, there was the prestige and credibility. For another, guilds increased artists' visibility to potential patrons. And not anyone could just walk up and join; these artistic guilds were selective, women being perhaps the most obvious exclusion.
For Leonardo, joining the Company of Painters was a big deal. While he kept working out of his master's studio, enrollment in the guild gave him a higher status and enabled him to receive commissions both individually and as part of the guild. But the honor of belonging to a guild certainly didn't come free. The guild's record books show that Leonardo was behind on his dues at least once. In typical fashion, Leonardo rebelled from within; he came out in favor of educating artists through schools, rather than apprenticeships and guilds.
Leonardo was prolific in this early period, producing many sketches and paintings. One of the first dated works attributed to Da Vinci is a pen-and-ink landscape drawing of the Arno River Valley. This sketch, from 1473, was one of many that Leonardo created before he became famous. The Uffizi Gallery in Florence contains several of the paintings Leonardo created between 1472 and 1475; one such work is the Annunciation, a religious scene that combined oil and tempera on wood. The National Gallery of Art in Washington houses other Leonardo paintings, such as Madonna and Child with Pomegranate (1472–1476) and one of his early portraits, an oil painting on wood of Ginevra de'Benci (1474–1476). Even in these early works, you can see Leonardo's innovations and genius. Not bad for a twenty-two-year-old!
14
Striking out on his own
After five years with the Company of Painters, Leonardo broke free of the guild and opened his own art studio in Florence. While he still kept close ties to Verrocchio, he began establishing his own identity, splitting from Verrocchio on several major issues. For example, while Verrocchio was a master of tempera, Leonardo preferred working with oil paint. Leonardo thought that oil paints had a more natural glow, and they also increased his ability to mix colors. His apprenticeship with Andrea Verrocchio gave Leonardo both the confidence and the reputation to join the Company of Painters; the experience he gained with the guild likely spurred him to branch out further by going to work for himself. In modern-day terms, Leonardo's striking out would be equivalent to working for a large corporation, and then taking out loans to begin a start-up company.
During his first years with the guild, Leonardo was still working with Verrocchio's studio on many projects. Records indicate that he either assumed more of a financial-management role with Verrocchio's jobs, or he actually had several of his own commissions within the studio. Never one to turn down work, Leonardo may have also worked with Antonio Pollaiuolo's neighboring studio on projects.
Leonardo's work during this period includes sketches he made around 1478 of an angel, which could be based on his angel from Verrocchio's Baptism of Christ, done several years earlier Many paintings of the Virgin Mary done during this period have been attributed to Leonardo as well. Of particular interest is a vibrant Madonna and Child from 1478 that shows incredible attention to detail and human facial expression. Leonardo's Portrait of Ginevra de'Benci, mentioned in the previous point, was one of his first surviving Renaissance portraitures. This oil-on-wood painting shows a woman with incredibly detailed curls in her hair and a facial expression that suggests she may have been used as practice for Leonardo's later work on the Mona Lisa.
The Madonna of the Carnation, also called the Benois Madonna (1478–1480), is another of Leonardo's works done during this early independent period. This oil painting again demonstrated realistic human features with a rich depth of expression, apparent especially in the Madonna's facial and hand gestures. And like many of Leonardo's other artistic endeavors, this work appears to be partially incomplete. Further, in this painting, lighting appears to be coming from both behind and in front of the window, indicatin
g that Leonardo was experimenting with the advanced painting techniques he would later refine. The innovations in Leonardo's early works are often copied throughout his career—when he found something that worked, he refined it and then used it over and over again.
Leonardo's period of self-employment was short-lived at this point. Devoted as he may have been to his art, Leonardo still had to eat and pay the bills. He didn't yet have a full-time patron, and no one would pay him just to sit around and draw for himself. Then there was the issue of handing projects in on time—something that plagued Leonardo throughout his career. Although he had a good reputation from the start, he was also known for starting more projects than he finished, and most patrons preferred a completed work to an idea or sketch—especially when they were paying for it! As it turns out, the artist-in-residence option fit Leonardo better than individual commissions. When just one patron employed him, Leonardo had much more leeway in his work. Leonardo went on to work for many important people over the course of his life, and his art developed with each change in patronage.
15
The rebirth of Italy
The Italian Renaissance is a truly unique part of history—it impacted society in just about every way possible, from the culture and art of the day to the religious and intellectual atmosphere. As a bit of background, Italian city-states of the fourteenth century were very different from each other: They were ruled separately, and this often created situations where one city would have enormous influence over the surrounding areas. At the beginning of the Renaissance, the main centers of power were Florence, Milan, Venice, Naples, and the region around Rome ruled by the pope. As the Renaissance spread and produced more interaction and communication between city-states, it also provided the means to create a more united Italy, and a more unified Europe.