* * *
Aside from their extremely different environments, what else might explain the score differences between the identical twins? Premature birth, especially low birth weight, has been linked to lower intelligence test scores. These scores may mask subtle deficits in visual-motor abilities, language functions, and attentional skills, especially among males. Jorge’s and William’s weights at birth were just slightly below the average weight of male twins born at thirty-five weeks of gestation, but we know only that the birth weights of the other brothers, as recalled by their mother, were two pounds each. However, the relationship of twins’ birth weight to IQ is not straightforward because researchers showed long ago that identical twins who weighed nearly two pounds less than their twin at birth did not lag behind them when tested at the age of six. Accelerated maturation of the lungs and brains of fetuses with modest nutritional deficits might shield these newborns from adverse birth events, and Carlos may have been a winner in this regard.11
Another explanation for the reared-apart twins’ ability differences is regression to the mean.12 This describes the phenomenon that researchers have noted time and again: people who score high the first time around tend to get lower scores if they take the same test again later. Factors like good health, luck, and chance may help some people on the day of testing, whereas people who score low but move up when they repeat the test may have gotten a better night’s sleep, prepared better, or benefited from chance events—or a mix of all three. If the Colombian twins are tested in the future, and the city boys were to lose a few points and the country boys were to gain some it would not be unusual.
* * *
I hear more different versions of the same song about the Colombian twins’ intellects than I usually do. Both separated identical pairs showed greater difference than I expected, given my experiences with reared-apart twins. However, before I visited Bogotá and La Paz, I neither appreciated nor comprehended the enormous discrepancies in the two environments, which is why I described La Paz as an alternative world. It is important to appreciate that previously separated twins have generally grown up in middle-and lower-middle-class homes, with access to education, culture, and the amenities of twentieth-century living, features that were absent from William and Wilber’s experience, making them outliers among reared-apart twins. And research with seven-year-old reared-together twins from low socioeconomic classes found that genetic influence on general mental ability dropped to near zero, while the shared effects of the home and school environments went up, an example of how particular environments can overwhelm genetic factors.13 Nevertheless, the Colombian twins do not challenge existing findings of genetic influence on intelligence, confirmed by countless twin studies, but these findings are better informed because the Colombian twins offer insight into how extreme environments can affect mental performance.
Is a Picture Worth a Thousand Scores?
The Draw-A-Person Intellectual Ability Test, or DAP:IQ, was developed to estimate the intellectual ability of children, adolescents, and adults by using a drawing of a human figure.14 An IQ score derived from this test is based on attributes in the drawing such as the presence of eyes, number of fingers, and shape of the torso. The Colombian twins completed the Draw-A-Person test twice, fifteen months apart, with both unstructured and standard sets of instructions. The drawings were evaluated by the original creators of the test, who were kept unaware of the identity and relatedness of the individuals involved.
IQ scores can be estimated only from the drawings completed under standard conditions, that is, standard instructions, such as “draw a picture of yourself … draw your whole body … draw how you look from the front.” The differences between scores based on these drawings and on the WAIS-IV were large and overestimated the twins’ actual test performance. However, the ordering of the estimated IQ scores, from highest to lowest, matched the ordering of the actual IQ scores.
Differences in the size and likeness of the human form between the individuals raised in Bogotá and the individuals raised in La Paz, especially in the first set of drawings completed with the unstructured directions, are striking. Also compelling is the general resemblance of the first set of pictures produced by the accidental brothers from La Paz. We can only speculate about the reasons for the tiny size and lack of detail in these drawings. They may reflect submissiveness among people living in isolated areas of Colombia, especially when they meet people from higher socioeconomic brackets or better-educated individuals. The brothers’ home did not have books and pictures portraying people realistically in terms of background and dimension (the house also lacked a dictionary and world atlas), and such pictures might have been unavailable or in short supply at their school. William made his second drawing, which was his self-portrait, after he had enrolled in law school, and it was much larger and more detailed than the first, whereas Wilber’s drawing changed only slightly. (Clinical interpretations of these pictures with respect to body image, self-esteem, or depression are likely to be tentative at best.)15
The use of human figure drawings for estimating standard IQ has been controversial, with hosts of supporters and detractors.16 Although the correspondence in ordering between the estimated and actual scores is of interest, I am not ready to concede that a picture is worth a thousand scores.
Chapter 10
“Twin-Bred” Cultures
Personality Profiles and Twin Relations
I have witnessed many memorable moments that reflect the unique “twin-bred” culture and personality of every identical twin pair—the use of paper clips to scratch an itchy ear; the staccato-like laughter that erupts spontaneously from two mouths; the hair chewing that eases the worries of anxious young women; and the flirtatious glances and expressions of reunited male-female twins. These quirky behaviors are harder to study than height, intelligence, or self-esteem because they vary so greatly across pairs, but each quirk affects researchers’ thinking about why people do what they do.
The Personal Ad
Asking people to describe themselves presents them with a tortuous task because people worry about bragging or putting themselves down. So I had the Colombian twins compose a personal ad for a dating service, an exercise they enjoyed immensely because all four are interested in meeting women and are sensitive to the qualities that attract women to them. During these conversations I also learned about the kinds of women they seek and the qualities they like and dislike about themselves.
* * *
Women like Jorge and he knows it, especially because he was the most sought-after of the four when news of the twin switch appeared on Facebook. He describes himself as “very happy, intelligent, and good-humored.” “Girls like to laugh,” he said, adding that when women talk to him, they realize he is cool company. Getting married and having two more children are two of his key goals, although his perfect partner has yet to appear. Always the diplomat, Jorge will choose the best man for his wedding from outside the band of brothers to dampen within-group jealousies.
An ideal partner would love him a lot, showing neither a complex nor a bad-tempered side, and would never stay mad for long. Having a professional degree, while not required, would “add points.” Jorge once thought that he and his twin gravitated toward the same sorts of women, but when he introduced William to various potential partners, Jorge changed his mind, realizing that William goes for traditional women from rural regions whom Jorge finds somewhat naive.
Jorge’s last comment exemplifies one of the most curious findings about twins: identical twins generally do not choose partners who resemble one another in personality and interests, leaving mate choice to follow the random process of romantic infatuation.1 This is surprising because the interests, values, and friendships of most identical twins are closely aligned, but it seems that subtle differences in whom we meet can become huge differences when picking dates and mates. Furthermore, few identical twins say they could have fallen for their twin’s husband or wife. During a long we
ekend I spent with the identical Texas twins Mark and Craig, who are married to the identical twins Darlene and Diane, each spouse insisted that he or she could never have married their spouse’s twin. What drew Craig to Diane over Darlene were her “sweeter, gentler features,” and what drew Mark to Darlene over Diane was her greater assertiveness, which complemented his laid-back approach to life. These twins’ experiences help us make sense of the Colombian twins’ individual dating preferences.
Jorge is happy most of the time, focusing on doing what he likes to do; he and William share this sunny disposition. Facing problem situations squarely before stepping back to find solutions makes Jorge proud and no doubt increases his self-esteem. He believes that Carlos and Wilber are happy as individuals and as a pair, even though their bad temper is their hallmark trait. Jorge also knows that Carlos, the brother with whom he grew up, enjoys his job as a financial analyst, but Jorge wonders how much his brother’s twin, Wilber, enjoys his job as a butcher and wonders if Wilber lacks Carlos’s drive. Perhaps Jorge forgot about Wilber’s enthusiasm for his former job installing software.
When Jorge loves or wants something, his passion spirals out of bounds. His devotion to his favorite football team, Club Atlético Nacional, has escalated to the point that the other three call it his obsession; an out-of-town game also caused him to miss one of our dinners (after he had promised to attend). His brothers worry about Jorge’s altercations with crazed fans who support other teams, but Jorge tunes them out because he “loves everything” about the sport, deriving happiness from releasing his energy at the game especially when he is feeling bottled up. His favorite colors are black and dark green, the colors of Club Atlético Nacional.
His list of recent passions also includes caring for his young son as he grows up and supporting William as he fulfills his goals. Santi, Jorge’s son, is a “twenty-four-hour-a-day priority for whom I try to set a good example.” When Jorge’s mother was sick, she reminded him that he never knew a father during his own childhood and urged him to see what he could do with his own child. Jorge has also dedicated himself to “opening new horizons” for his twin, thrilled that William is going to law school. Jorge helps William as much as he can, not just with coursework but by introducing his twin to new foods and drinks, and correcting his use of words and phrases that are common in the country, but not in the city. Editing the text messages his twin sends to prospective dating partners is part of what Jorge does to help William. At the same time, Jorge has stayed loyal to Carlos, with whom he was raised, and is intent upon fostering connections among all four brothers.
Strycon laid Jorge off in 2016 because of the crisis in the Colombian oil industry—declining investments and a shortage of reliable reserves. Finding another job so he can pay his university fees is a lingering problem, but because Jorge financially supported Carlos and some of his own friends in the past, Jorge is certain he will find a solution to this situation too—he always does. This period of unemployment, which includes some unexpected laziness, is bothersome, but he constantly searches for something to occupy his time, such as doing laundry, cooking, seeing Santi, or visiting Santi’s grandmother. Being busy and in motion is how Jorge prefers to live. For example, while we were chatting with William, we asked Jorge to wait for a half hour in a vacant room next to mine in the hotel. The room was comfortable, with a bed, television, radio, and Wi-Fi, a place where Carlos once enjoyed the amenities and downtime while waiting for us. But after a few minutes Jorge came back to say he would wait in the lobby, which was busy and had lots of people around.
* * *
If he had to compose a singles ad, William would advertise himself as a hardworking young man interested in having a family; he would list happy, extroverted, and charming as his best qualities. He sees his charm embodied in his universal kindness, ease at forming friendships, and desire to help people. His thoughtfulness was on display when he was the only one of the four twins to give me a gift when I returned to Bogotá; he presented me with a package of bocadillos, the sweet guava sandwiches that I love, and when I left he gave me a pair of soft shoes emblazed with the name of his town, La Paz.
Like his twin, William is waiting for his ideal woman to appear. She would be happy and extroverted like him, support his almost daily regimen at the gym, and, most important, come from a good family whose members are hardworking, honest, and have good principles.
The self-descriptions of these twin brothers sound like near photocopies, and William knows it. Like Jorge, William believes in being thoughtful and respectful of others, priding himself on forming friendships wherever he goes. The person is most important to him, and he makes no distinction when it comes to age, ethnicity, or religion. He also knows that immediate warmth is outside the culture of Carlos and Wilber, who are less affectionate.
William, the future politician, insisted, “I will always pose with people for pictures.” Reflecting upon his run for a seat on the La Paz city council in 2016, he worried that his loss was more difficult for his disappointed supporters than it was for him. As his twin would probably have done, he confronted his loss squarely, realizing that the solution would be to better prepare for the next campaign. With this in mind he works with the mayor of the town on projects that support farmers and friends in the area. At the same time William sees himself as a shrewd businessman, buying an apartment that is under construction and, while he is in law school, handing management of the butcher shop over to Wilber. Nothing is off-putting about what William describes as shrewdness, a trait that others might see as simply knowing how to arrange things to his personal advantage. That sounds like Jorge.
William is meticulous and careful where his identical twin is more lax. As a lawyer in the making, William reads contracts carefully now that the media, fascinated by the twins’ story, wants the twins for TV appearances, biopics, and documentaries. He insisted that our interpreter read through St. Martin’s informed consent statement line by line, whereas Jorge signed the form without reading it, knowing that William would read it and ensure it was reasonable. Enormous faith and trust pass between these two, and their knowledge of themselves and each other clearly makes them mirrors. When Jorge shot a gun for the first time in La Paz, he hit the target, a success that did not surprise his twin because he is a good shot himself. This moment exemplifies the ways identical twins support and encourage one another, something that athletic coaches see all the time and try to capitalize on.2 Carlos, on the other hand, missed the shot.
William has achieved, or is confident that he will achieve, everything he has always wanted. He is happy most of the time. As an eager learner who loves studying law, he rejoices in the opportunities he had thought he would never have. William is never miffed when his twin corrects his speech, suggests new foods, or offers advice about women, regarding these as opportunities to learn new things. Meeting his identical other is the most important thing that ever happened to him.
William enjoys challenges and did so even as a twelve-year-old child, when he decided to ride a bull, “something no one ever does.” He teased the bull to tame it and became the only person around who could ride it. His persistence is a hallmark of his approach to life and was especially important in expediting his first meeting with Jorge, which led to the twins’ television appearance on Séptimo Día. And when William joined the military, he did so to experience life beyond his family’s farm. He was unafraid of the guerillas, but he feared the landmines that had cost his close friend his limbs.
The current challenge for William is bodybuilding because women now regard him as “delicious,” but Jorge thinks William is becoming obsessive about this pastime. Like the others, William claims that his twin spends too much time on football and should not borrow money from friends to travel to games. William also worries that football attracts some “bad people” and that his twin may get hurt. Both twins’ dedication to activities they love is a quality they admire about one another, but for now they urge their twin to use moderatio
n because of where and how he directs that dedication.
Becoming a better dancer is among William’s goals. He shares his perceived lack of talent in this area with Jorge, but both have a good attitude and enjoy dancing at parties and other social gatherings. While some of their mutual friends have judged William to be the better dancer, I think they have similar potential, and I’ve danced with both. Other than the fault he finds with his dancing, William could not list anything he dislikes about himself, but because of his charm no one would accuse him of bragging. In contrast, Carlos is a natural dancer, moving gracefully across the floor, and Wilber could be but isn’t, perhaps because he doesn’t believe he could be.
William generally is not passive, but he becomes so when he is with Jorge, and during these times his cell phone can suddenly get busy. Both twins are upfront about their relationship and comfortable with who they are, both apart and together. Identical twins sometimes act in selfless ways that nontwins find hard to understand. What some people might construe as Jorge’s taking over the show is William’s opportunity to listen and learn.
Accidental Brothers Page 24