12. A. Alsema, “Colombia Implements Free Primary and Secondary Education,” Colombia Reports, February 2, 2012, http://colombiareports.com/colombia-implements-free-primary-and-secondary-education/.
13. N. L. Segal, Someone Else’s Twin: The True Story of Babies Switched at Birth (Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 2011).
14. S. J. Schwartz, B. L. Zamboanga, and R. S. Weisskirch, “Broadening the Study of the Self: Integrating the Study of Personal Identity and Cultural Identity,” Social and Personality Psychology Compass 2, no. 2 (2008): 635–51.
15. Segal, Someone Else’s Twin.
16. E. Burnstein, C. Crandall, and S. Kitayama, “Some Neo-Darwinian Decision Rules for Altruism: Weighing Cues for Inclusive Fitness as a Function of the Biological Importance of the Decision,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 67, no. 5 (1994): 773–89; D. M. Buss, Evolutionary Psychology: The New Science of the Mind (Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 2015).
17. E. Schein and P. Bernstein, Identical Strangers: A Memoir of Twins Separated and Reunited (New York: Random House, 2007).
18. Steven Pinker, interview by Sally Satel, “Inside the Psychologist’s Studio: Steven Pinker,” Association for Psychological Science, KMP Productions video, May 22, 2015, http://www.psychologicalscience.org/index.php/publications/observer/obsonline/inside-the-psychologists-studio-steven-pinker.html.
19. M. de la Baume, “In France, a Baby Switch and a Lesson in Maternal Love,” New York Times Magazine, February 24, 2015, https://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/25/world/europe/in-france-a-baby-switch-and-a-test-of-a-mothers-love.html?_r=0.
20. N. L. Segal, Indivisible by Two: Lives of Extraordinary Twins (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005).
21. N. L. Segal, “Switched-at-Birth Twins in the Canary Islands: Revisited,” Twin Research and Human Genetics 16, no. 4 (2013): 916–21.
22. Segal, Someone Else’s Twin.
23. R. Bailey, “Mitochondria: Power Producers,” ThoughtCo.com, July 21, 2017, http://biology.about.com/od/cellanatomy/ss/mitochondria.htm.
24. Segal, “Value of Twin Studies”; R. R. Rusting, “Baby Switching: An Under-Reported Problem That Needs to Be Recognized,” Journal of Healthcare Protection Management 17, no. 1 (2001): 89–100; “Identification Techniques for Preventing Infant Mix-Ups,” DNA Diagnostics Center, n.d., http://www.dnacenter.com/science-technology/articles/infant-mix-up.html.
25. L. Belkin, “Babies Switched at Birth,” Motherlode: Adventures in Parenting (blog), New York Times, April 2, 2009, https://parenting.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/04/02/babies-switched-at-birth/?_r=0.
Chapter 2: Familiar Strangers
1. My formal criteria for classifying biologically unrelated siblings as virtual twins are: both individuals must have entered the family by age one; the age difference between the individuals cannot exceed nine months, which is the usual age difference between classmates; if the siblings are of school age they must be enrolled in the same grade, but not necessarily the same class or school—this is to preserve the twin-like nature of their relationship; and both individuals must be free of adverse birth events that may have affected intellectual performance. N. L. Segal, “Do Parents Favor Their Adoptive or Biological Children? Predictions from Kin Selection and Compensatory Models,” Evolution and Human Behavior 36, no. 5: 379–88.
2. N. L. Segal, Born Together—Reared Apart: The Landmark Minnesota Twin Study (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012); N. L. Segal, S. A. McGuire, and J. H. Stohs, “What Virtual Twins Reveal About General Intelligence and Other Behaviors,” Personality and Individual Differences 53, no. 4 (2012): 405–10.
3. L. Rimmer, “Who Do You Look Like? DNA and Family Resemblance Across Generations,” Abroad in the Yard, 2017, http://www.abroadintheyard.com/dna-family-resemblance-across-generations/.
4. N. L. Segal and F. A. Cortez, “Born in Korea—Adopted Apart: Behavioral Development of Monozygotic Twins Raised in the United States and France,” Personality and Individual Differences 70 (2014): 97–104.
5. N. L. Segal, “Twinsters, the Movie: Reared Apart Twins in Real Time,” Twin Research and Human Genetics 19, no. 1 (2016): 80–85.
6. D. M. Buss, Evolutionary Psychology: The New Science of the Mind, 5th ed. (New York: Routledge, 2015).
7. I. E. D. Restrepo Millan, http://www.redacademica.edu.co/webcolegios/18/IEDRestrepoMillanM/PAGINAWEBPRINCIPAL.htm.
8. SENA is a public institution and agency of the Ministry of Labor of Colombia. It was created in 1957 to develop and expand a technically skilled workforce in that country. See https://www.volunteerscolombia.org/sena.
9. A. Hunter et al., “Elements of Morphology: Standard Terminology for the Ear,” American Journal of Medical Genetics Part A 149, no. 1 (2009): 40–60.
10. Y. Hur, T. J. Bouchard, Jr., and D. T. Lykken, “Genetic and Environmental Influences on Morningness-Eveningness,” Personality and Individual Differences 25, no. 5 (1998): 917–25.
11. J. Kaufman, “Mom Always Said to Share,” New York Times, March 3, 2013, RE-1, http://www.nytimes.com/2013/03/03/realestate/siblings-as-roommates-mom-always-said-to-share.html?mcubz=0.
12. P. E. Hyman et al., “Childhood Functional Gastrointestinal Disorders: Neonate/Toddler,” Gastroenterology 130, no. 5 (2006): 1519–26.
13. Entrada literally means “entry.” The term gets its name from the missing part of tickets torn upon admission to a show.
14. Recent research shows that other genetic factors also affect the expression of male baldness. A. M. Hillmer et al., “Genome-Wide Scan and Fine-Mapping Linkage Study of Androgenetic Alopecia Reveals a Locus on Chromosome 3q26.” The American Journal of Human Genetics 82, no. 3 (2008): 737–43.
15. Segal, Born Together—Reared Apart.
16. N. van der As et al., “Genetic Influences on Individual Differences in Exercise Behavior During Adolescence,” International Journal of Pediatrics (2010), doi:10.1155/2010/138345.
17. K. S. Kendler et al., “The Genetic Epidemiology of Irrational Fears and Phobias in Men,” Archives of General Psychiatry 58, no. 3 (2001): 257–65; N. L. Segal, Entwined Lives: Twins and What They Tell Us About Human Behavior (New York: Plume, 2000).
18. H. Mead, “Colombia Celebrates Holy Week,” Colombia Reports, March 25, 2013, http://colombiareports.com/colombians-celebrate-holy-week/; “Roman Catholic Church Holy Week in Colombia 2015,” vercalendario.info, http://www.vercalendario.info/en/when/easter-week-colombia-2015.html.
19. F. Galton, “The History of Twins as a Criterion of the Relative Powers of Nature and Nurture,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute 5 (1875): 391–406; E. Moriarty, “Just Alike: Twins Separated at Birth,” 48 Hours, CBS, February 5, 2017, https://www.cbsnews.com/news/just-alike-twins-separated-at-birth/.
Chapter 3: Miles of Memories
1. R. L. Williams and K. G. Guerrieri, Culture and Customs of Colombia (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1999); J. McDermott, “20 Years After Pablo: The Evolution of Colombia’s Drug Trade,” InSight Crime, December 3, 2013, http://www.insightcrime.org/news-analysis/20-years-after-pablo-the-evolution-of-colombias-drug-trade; “The 31 Places to Go in 2010,” New York Times, January 7, 2010, http://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/10/travel/10places.html?pagewanted=all&mcubz=0.
2. A. Newman, “An Attention-Getter, Irresistibly Interactive,” City Room (blog), New York Times, October 21, 2010, https://cityroom.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/10/21/an-attention-getter-irresistibly-interactive/?_r=0; “International Sculpture Center Lifetime Achievement Award Gala Honoring Fernando Botero,” International Sculpture Center, 2012, http://www.sculpture.org/botero/botero_postscript.shtml.
3. “Shakira,” Biography.com, April 27, 2017, https://www.biography.com/people/shakira-189151; “Sofía Vergara,” IMDb, http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0005527/#actress; Leslie Stahl, “The
Alzheimer’s Laboratory,” 60 Minutes, November 27, 2016, http://www.cbsnews.com/news/60-minutes-alzheimers-disease-medellin-colombia-lesley-stahl/; L. Kiniry, “Will the Real Juan Valdez Please Stand Up?” Smithsonian.com, September 1, 2011, http://www.smithsonianmag.com/people-places/will-the-real-juan-valdez-please-stand-up-68594542/.
4. Washington Office on Latin America, “Social Leaders Face a Wave of Attacks in Colombia. The Peace Accord’s Credibility Hinges on Immediate Action to Stop It,” Colombia Peace, December 5, 2016, http://colombiapeace.org; “U.N. Observers Called ‘A Joke,’” Los Angeles Times, January 4, 2017, A4.
5. Reuters, “Colombia’s ELN Commander Orders Ceasefire Beginning Sunday,” Nasdaq, September 29, 2017, http://www.nasdaq.com/article/colombias-eln-rebel-commander-orders-ceasefire-beginning-sunday-20170929-00976/amp.
6. N. L. Segal, Born Together—Reared Apart: The Landmark Minnesota Twin Study (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012).
7. Ibid., 94.
8. N. G. Waller et al., “Genetic and Environmental Influences on Religious Interests, Attitudes and Values: A Study of Twins Reared Apart and Together,” Psychological Science 1, no. 2 (1990): 138–42; Segal, Born Together—Reared Apart, 144.
9. T. J. Bouchard et al., “Intrinsic and Extrinsic Religiousness: Genetic and Environmental Influences and Personality Correlates,” Twin Research and Human Genetics 2, no. 2 (1999): 88–98. See also the other papers in this edition of Twin Research and Human Genetics.
10. Segal, Born Together—Reared Apart, 146.
11. M. E. Holmes, Being You (London: Austin & Mcauley, 2008), 155–57.
12. N. L. Segal, Indivisible by Two: Lives of Extraordinary Twins (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005).
13. Segal, Born Together—Reared Apart, 286, 326–27.
14. Ray Williams, interview by author, October, 19, 2015, Riverside, California.
15. Javier B., review of Hoyo del Aire, tripadvisor, January 1, 2016, https://www.tripadvisor.com/ShowUserReviews-g4458586-d9802349-r336483401-Hoyo_del_Aire-La_Paz_Cesar_Department.html.
16. “Leshmaniasis FAQs,” US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, January 10, 2013, https://www.cdc.gov/parasites/leishmaniasis/gen_info/faqs.html.
17. M. J. R. Garcia, “Colombian National Army Develops Methodology to Fight Leishmaniasis,” Díalogo, March 4, 2016, https://dialogo-americas.com/en/articles/colombian-national-army-develops-methodology-fight-leishmaniasis/pdf_print.
18. A. Scheinfeld, Twins and Supertwins (New York: J. P. Lippincott, 1967); M. Joye, He Was Not My Son (New York: Rinehart, 1954); N. L. Segal, Someone Else’s Twin: The True Story of Babies Switched at Birth (Amherst, NY: Prometheus, 2011).
19. Ibid.
20. D. Roos, “Skin Grafts,” HowStuffWorks.com, November 4, 2009, http://health.howstuffworks.com/skin-care/information/anatomy/skin-graft2.htm.
21. M. F. A. Woodruff and B. Lennox, “Reciprocal Skin Grafts in a Pair of Twins Showing Blood Chimaerism,” The Lancet 274, no. 7101 (1959): 476–78.
22. D. Klein, “Living History—Autobiography: Genetics and Environment from a Personal History,” American Journal of Medical Genetics 37, no. 3 (1990): 323–35.
23. Joye, He Was Not My Son.
24. N.L. Segal, Someone Else’s Twin: The True Story of Babies Switched at Birth (Amherst, NY: Prometheus, 2011).
25. Joye, He Was Not My Son.
26. Segal, Indivisible by Two.
27. Ibid.
28. Jan Batory, dir., The Two Who Stole the Moon, Syrena Film, 1962; C. Domonoske, “A Tale of Twin Brothers: Poland’s Mourned Leader and Lonely Mastermind,” The Two-Way: Breaking News from NPR, February 7, 2016, http://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2016/02/07/465926224/a-tale-of-twin-brothers-polands-mourned-leader-and-lonely-mastermind.
29. Johnathan Josephs, prod., “Twins Reunited After 70 Years Apart,” BBC News, September 14, 2015, http://www.bbc.com/news/av/world-europe-34209018/twins-reunited-after-70-years-apart.; A. Harrold, “Twins Separated After WWII Are Reunited 70 Years Later,” Independent (UK), September 15, 2015, http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/health-and-families/twins-born-following-second-world-war-and-then-separated-are-reunited-after-70-years-apart-10500097.html.
30. Segal, Indivisible by Two.
31. Segal, Someone Else’s Twin, 169–88.
32. Convivencia referred originally to the generally peaceful coexistence or cohabitation of Jews, Muslims, and Christians during the early years of medieval Spain. While individuals from the different communities interacted and engaged in business together, there was competition and jealousy that sometimes devolved into hatred. However, this period, which lasted from 711 to 1492, was later marked by Jewish persecution, conversion, expulsion, and killings once the “Golden Age” began to dissolve. J. Rosenbaum, “Foreword,” vii–ix; V. B. Mann, “Preface,” xi–xiii; and B. R. Gampel, “Jews, Christians, and Muslims in Medieval Iberia: Convivencia Through the Eyes of Sephardic Jews,” 11–37, in Convivencia: Jews, Muslims, and Christians in Medieval Spain, ed. V. B. Mann, T. F. Glick, and J. D. Dodds (New York: George Braziller, 1992); J. Ray, “Beyond Tolerance and Persecution: Reassessing Our Approach to Medieval Convivencia,” Jewish Social Studies 11, no. 2 (2005): 1–18.
33. Segal, Someone Else’s Twin.
Chapter 4: The Friends Investigate
1. Some material in this chapter is based upon information from Séptimo Día, the television program that featured the twins’ story on October 26, 2014 (Part 1), and November 3, 2014 (Part 2), Paolo Rojas, prod., “Crossed Lives,” Séptimo Dia, Caracol Televisión. Caracol Televisión is a television network in Colombia, privately owned by the Santo Domingo Group.
2. Strycon is a multidisciplinary organization of consulting engineers.
3. Type A blood results when children inherit the dominant A gene from both parents, or the A gene from one parent and the recessive O gene from the other parent. Type O blood results when children inherit two O genes, one from each parent. The likelihood that fraternal twins and siblings would both be type A or type O depends upon the blood types of their parents. If, for example, both parents had two A genes or two O genes, then all their children would be type A or type O. If both parents had one A gene and one O gene, then an average of 75 percent of their children would be type A (25 percent would be AA and 50 percent would be AO; dominant genes overshadow the recessive genes) and an average of 25 percent would be type O. Unrelated individuals can have matching blood types, but not because of common descent. The positive or negative expression of each blood type stands for Rhesus, or Rh. The Rh factor is a protein on the surface of our red blood cells; positive refers to its presence and negative to its absence. Positive is the dominant form of the gene, and negative is the recessive form. Unrelated individuals can match on this factor, as well.
4. R. Plomin et al., Behavioral Genetics, 7th ed. (New York: Worth, 2016).
5. E. J. Yunis and J. J. Yunis, El ADN en la identificación Humana (Bogotá: Editorial Ternis, 2002).
6. S. J. Min et al., “Birth Weight References for Twins,” American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 182, no. 5 (2000): 1250–57.
7. These twins and other pairs from China were adopted by different families living in the United States and elsewhere, partly because of China’s one-child policy and preference for male children, leading to the abandonment of thousands of baby girls, twins among them. I have been tracking the development of these pairs as it unfolds, in the only reared-apart twin project to do so. Also see N. L. Segal, Indivisible by Two: Lives of Extraordinary Twins (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005).
8. N. L. Segal, Someone Else’s Twin: The True Story of Babies Switched at Birth (Amherst, NY: Prometheus, 2011).
Chapter 5: Revela
tions
1. N. L. Segal, “Twin, Adoption and Family Methods as Approaches to the Evolution of Individual Differences,” in The Evolution of Personality and Individual Differences, ed. D. M. Buss and P. Hawley, 303–37 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011). A small group of twins who had experienced the loss of both their twin and a spouse registered the same levels of high-intensity grief. Too few twins had lost children (fortunately) to permit a comparison of twin loss and child loss.
2. Comment from a surviving twin as part of an ongoing study of twin loss, conducted in my Twin Studies Center at California State University, Fullerton.
3. Sharon and Sita, “If I Had My Life to Live Again I’d Find You Sooner,” FoundMySister, April 24, 2017, http://foundmysister.weebly.com/our-adventures.
4. C. Tomassini et al., “Risk of Suicide in Twins: 51-Year Follow-up Study,” British Medical Journal 327, no. 7411 (2003): 373–74.
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