87. Lutz and Lovell, “Survivors on the Move,” 32.
88. Rigoberta Menchu, with Elisabeth Debray, I, Rigoberta Menchu: An Indian Woman from Guatemala (New York: Verso, 1987), 21–23.
89. Ibid., 23.
90. Daniel Wilkinson, Silence on the Mountain: Stories of Terror, Betrayal, and Forgetting in Guatemala (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2004), 43.
91. Patricia Foxen, In Search of Providence: Transnational Mayan Identities (Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University Press, 2007), 63.
92. Ibid., 78.
93. Ibid., 99.
94. Ibid., 100. David Stoll describes a similar phenomenon in another Guatemalan town, where labor contractors have been using force, debt, or landlessness and need to recruit indigenous workers for migrant labor for over a century. Today’s coyotes and contractors simply recruit them to work in another country. David Stoll, El Norte or Bust! How Migration Fever and Microcredit Produced a Financial Crash in a Latin American Town (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2013), 198.
95. Stoll describes this process in El Norte or Bust!, 89.
96. Lutz and Lovell, “Survivors on the Move,” 33.
97. Foxen, In Search of Providence, 149.
98. Ibid., 115.
99. Ibid., 115; Sarah J. Mahler, American Dreaming: Immigrant Life on the Margins (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995), 141.
100. Erik Camayd-Freixas, US Immigration Reform and its Global Impact: Lessons from the Postville Raid (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), 100.
101. Randal C. Archibold, “In Trek North, First Lure Is Mexico’s Other Line,” New York Times, April 26, 2013.
CHAPTER 3: BECOMING ILLEGAL
1. Ruth Ellen Wasem, Nonimmigrant Overstays: Brief Synthesis of the Issue, Congressional Research Service Report for Congress, May 22, 2006, http://trac.syr.edu/immigration/library/P735.pdf.
2. Department of Homeland Security, Office of Immigration Statistics, “2010 Yearbook of Immigration Statistics,” table 26, http://www.dhs.gov/xlibrary/assets/statistics/yearbook/2010/ois_yb_2010.pdf.
3. Randall Monger, “Non-Immigrant Admissions to the United States, 2011,” Homeland Security, Office of Immigration Statistics, July 2012, http://www.dhs.gov/xlibrary/assets/statistics/publications/ni_fr_2011.pdf; Department of State, “Non-Immigrant Visas Issued, 2007–2011,” http://www.travel.state.gov/pdf/NIVClassIssued-DetailedFY2007–2011.pdf; Department of State, “Nonimmigrant Visa Issuance by Visa Class and Nationality, FY 2011,” http://www.travel.state.gov/pdf/FY11NIVDetailTable.pdf. The Visa Waiver Program applies to thirty-seven mostly European countries and allows would-be visitors to be processed at the border without obtaining a visa prior to departure.
4. In 2009, 126.8 million of 163 million total entries were Border Crossing Cards rather than nonimmigrant visa entries. See Ruth Ellen Wasem, US Immigration Policy on Temporary Admissions, Congressional Research Service, February 8, 2011, 15–16, http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/homesec/RL31381.pdf.
5. Pew Hispanic Center, “Modes of Entry for the Unauthorized Migrant Population,” May 22, 2006, http://pewhispanic.org/files/factsheets/19.pdf.
6. Lynnaire M. Sheridan, “I Know It’s Dangerous”: Why Mexicans Risk Their Lives to Cross the Border (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2009), 66.
7. Ibid., 61.
8. Ibid., 79.
9. See Florida Fruit and Vegetable Association, “Who Will Harvest the Food?” November 2011, http://www.ffva.com/imispublic/Content/NavigationMenu2/NewsCenter/HarvesterOnline/Mainfeature1111/default.htm.
10. United States Government Accountability Office, “Report to the Chairman, Committee on Education and Labor, House of Representatives: H-2B VISA PROGRAM Closed Civil and Criminal Cases Illustrate Instances of H-2B Workers Being Targets of Fraud and Abuse,” September 2010, 4, http://www.gao.gov/assets/320/310640.pdf.
11. Gardenia Mendoza Aguilar, “A merced de fraudes con visas,” Impremedia, May 11, 2011, http://www.impre.com/noticias/2011/5/11/a-merced-de-fraudes-con-visas-255317–1.html.
12. Gardenia Mendoza Aguilar, “El botín de los coyotes: Miles deben pagar para tramitar trabajo temporal en EEUU,” Impremedia, May 9, 2011, http://www.impre.com/noticias/2011/5/9/el-botin-de-los-coyotes-legale-254910–2.html.
13. Dan LaBotz, “Farm Labor Organizer Murdered in Mexico, Labor Contractors Suspected,” CounterPunch, April 14–16, 2007, http://www.counterpunch.org/labotz04142007.html.
14. Mendoza Aguilar, “A merced de fraudes con visas.”
15. Southern Poverty Law Center, Close to Slavery: Guestworker Programs in the United States, April 2007, http://www.splcenter.org/get-informed/publications/close-to-slavery-guestworker-programs-in-the-united-states#.UaIQ-cokSSo.
16. Jeffrey Passel, D’Vera Cohn, and Ana Gonzalez-Barrera, “Net Migration from Mexico Falls to Zero—and Perhaps Less,” Pew Hispanic Center, April 23, 2012, http://www.pewhispanic.org/2012/04/23/vi-characteristics-of-mexican-born-immigrants-living-in-the-u-s/.
17. Comisión Nacional de Derechos Humanos (CNDH), “Informe especial sobre secuestro de migrantes en México,” February 22, 2011, 5, http://www.cndh.org.mx/sites/all/fuentes/documentos/informes/especiales/2011_secmigrante.pdf.
18. Randal C. Archibold, “In Trek North, First Lure Is Mexico’s Other Line,” New York Times, April 26, 2013.
19. Olga R. Rodríguez, “Central American Migrants Flood North Through Mexico to US,” Huffington Post, July 13, 2012, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/07/13/central-americans-in-the-united-states_n_1671551.html.
20. Abril Trigo, Memorias migrantes: Testimonios y ensayos sobre la diáspora uruguaya (Rosario, Argentina: Beatriz Viterbo Editora, 2003), 190.
21. Maxine L. Margolis, Little Brazil: An Ethnography of Brazilian Immigrants in New York City (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993), 49–50.
22. Samuel Martinez, “Migration from the Caribbean: Economic and Political Factors versus Legal and Illegal Status,” in Illegal Immigration in America: A Reference Handbook, ed. David W. Haines and Karen E. Rosenblum (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1999), 278–79.
23. Margolis, Little Brazil, 51.
24. Kurt Birson, “Mexico: Abuses against US Bound Migrant Workers,” NACLA Report, September 23, 2010, https://nacla.org/node/6753.
25. Centro de Derechos Humanos Miguel Agustín Pro Juárez, A.C. (Centro ProDH) et al., “Secuestros a personas migrantes en tránsito por México,” 7–8, http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cmw/docs/ngos/prodh_Mexico_CAT47.pdf.
26. Sebastian Rotella, “The New Border: Illegal Immigration’s Shifting Frontier,” ProPublica, December 6, 2012, http://www.propublica.org/article/the-new-border-illegal-immigrations-shifting-frontier.
27. Paul Imison, “The Freight Train That Runs to the Heart of Mexico’s ‘Drugs War’: Riding ‘La Bestia’ to Freedom or Death,” Independent, February 3, 2013; Archibold, “In Trek North”; Karl Penhaul, “‘Train of Death’ Drives Migrant American Dreamers,” CNN, June 25, 2010, http://www.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/americas/06/23/mexico.train.death/index.html. See also Sonia Nazario, Enrique’s Journey (New York: Random House, 2007).
28. CNDH, “Informe especial,” 12.
29. Ibid., 26–27.
30. Ibid., 28–29.
31. Centro ProDH, “Secuestros a personas migrantes,” 1.
32. Ibid., 9.
33. Ibid., 9.
34. CNDH, “Informe especial,” 37.
35. La Redacción, “Capturan al responsable de la masacre de indocumentados en San Fernando,” Proceso, June 17, 2011, http://www.proceso.com.mx/?p=273018; Voz de América, “Detenido por masacre en México,” June 16, 2011, http://www.voanoticias.com/content/detenido-masacre-indocumentados-mexico-124079179/100610.html.
36. El Salvador Noticias.net, “Masacre de 49 supuestos migrantes en Nuevo León, México,” May 13, 2012, http://www.elsalvadornoticias.net/2012/05/13/masacre-de-49-supuestos-migrantes-en-nuevo-leon-mexico/.
37. Centro ProDH, “Secuestros a personas migrantes,” 10.
3
8. Ibid., 13.
39. Univision.com, “A dos años de masacre de migrantes en San Fernando, Tamaulipas,” August 22, 2012, http://noticias.univision.com/narcotrafico/reportajes/article/2012–08–22/dos-anio-masacre-san-fernando-tamaulipas#ixzz2BPEzSZg9.
40. See Joseph Nevins, Operation Gatekeeper and Beyond: The War on “Illegals” and the Remaking of the US–Mexico Boundary, 2nd ed. (New York: Routledge, 2010), chap. 5, for a detailed discussion of how California politicians, led by Governor Pete Wilson, created and manipulated the so-called “crisis” of “illegal immigration.”
41. Ibid., 111.
42. Office of the Inspector General, “Background to the Office of the Inspector General Investigation,” July 1998, http://www.justice.gov/oig/special/9807/gkp01.htm.
43. Maria Jimenez, “Humanitarian Crisis: Migrant Deaths at the US-Mexico Border,” American Civil Liberties Union, October 1, 2009, 7, http://www.aclu.org/files/pdfs/immigrants/humanitariancrisisreport.pdf.
44. Ibid., 21.
45. Coalición de Derechos Humanos, “Arizona Recovered Bodies Project,” http://derechoshumanosaz.net/projects/arizona-recovered-bodies-project/.
46. US Government Accountability Office, “Illegal Immigration: Border-Crossing Deaths Have Doubled since 1995,” August 2006, 4, http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d06770.pdf.
47. Stephen Dinan, “Figures Point to Securer Border, But Risk of Death for Illegals Still High,” Washington Times, March 22, 2012, http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2012/mar/22/figures-point-to-securer-border-but-risk-of-death-/?page=all.
48. US Border Patrol, Southwest Border Sectors, “Southwest Border Deaths by Fiscal Year (October 1 through September 30),” http://www.cbp.gov/linkhandler/cgov/border_security/border_patrol/usbp_statistics/usbp_fy12_stats/border_patrol_fy.ctt/border_patrol_fy.pdf.
49. Brady McCombs, “No Signs of Letup in Entrant Deaths,” Arizona Daily Star, December 27, 2009, http://azstarnet.com/news/local/border/article_faf5b437-b728–527b-9eb8–77977d0cdf84.html.
50. Jimenez, “Humanitarian Crisis,” 33.
51. Las Americas Premium Outlets, San Ysidro, CA, Yelp.com, http://www.yelp.com/biz/las-americas-premium-outlets-san-ysidro.
CHAPTER 4: WHAT PART OF “ILLEGAL” DO YOU UNDERSTAND?
1. Jose Antonio Vargas, “Not Legal Not Leaving,” Time, June 25, 2012, http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,2117243,00.html#ixzz27acH8fKJ.
2. Twenty-nine percent arrived between 2000 and 2004, and 26 percent between 1995–1999, with another 14 percent arriving between 1990 and 1994 and 17 percent arriving in the 1980s. Michael Hoefer, Nancy Rytina, and Bryan Baker, “Estimates of the Unauthorized Immigrant Population Residing in the United States: January 2011,” Department of Homeland Security, Office of Immigration Statistics, Population Estimates, March 2012.
3. Jeffrey Passel and D’Vera Cohn, “Unauthorized Immigrant Population: National and State Trends, 2010,” part II, 10–11, February 1, 2011, http://www.pewhispanic.org/2011/02/01/ii-current-estimates-and-trends/.
4. Sarah Gammage, “El Salvador: Despite End to Civil War, Emigration Continues,” Migration Information Source, July 2007, http://www.migrationinformation.org/Profiles/display.cfm?ID=636; Hemispheric Migration Project, Central Americans in Mexico and the United States, Center for Immigration Policy and Refugee Assistance (Washington, DC: Georgetown University, 1988), 29.
5. “Salvadoran TPS to Expire,” Migration News 2, no.1 (January 1995), http://migration.ucdavis.edu/mn/more.php?id=512_0_2_0.
6. Cecilia Menjívar and Leisy Abrego, “Parents and Children across Borders: Legal Instability and Intergenerational Relations in Guatemalan and Salvadoran Families,” in Across Generations: Immigrant Families in America, ed. Nancy Foner (New York: New York University Press, 2009), 165.
7. Ester E. Hernandez, “Relief Dollars: US Policies toward Central Americans, 1980s to Present,” in Immigration, Incorporation and Transnationalism, ed. Elliott Robert Barkan (Piscataway, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2007), 216.
8. Ibid., 217.
9. Menjívar and Abrego, “Parents and Children across Borders,” 164.
10. Cecilia Menjívar, “Liminal Legality: Salvadoran and Guatemalan Immigrants’ Lives in the United States,” American Journal of Sociology 111, no. 4 (January 2006): 1000–1001.
11. US Code, 2011 Edition, Title 8—ALIENS AND NATIONALITY. CHAPTER 14—RESTRICTING WELFARE AND PUBLIC BENEFITS FOR ALIENS. SUBCHAPTER IV—GENERAL PROVISIONS. Sec. 1641—Definitions, http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/USCODE-2011-title8/html/USCODE-2011-title8-chap14-subchapIV-sec1641.htm.
12. Steve A. Camarota, The High Cost of Cheap Labor: Illegal Immigration and the Federal Budget, Center for Immigration Studies, August 2004, http://www.cis.org/High-Cost-of-Cheap-Labor.
13. See Edmund H. Mahony, “Fifty Indicted in Identity Theft Ring,” Hartford Courant, January 11, 2012.
14. See Marianne McCune, “Puerto Rican Birth Certificates Will Be Null and Void,” National Public Radio, March 18, 2010, http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=124827546.
15. In fact, these payments subsidize the Social Security system, since undocumented immigrants using false numbers will never receive the benefits that they are paying into. The Social Security Administration estimated these payments came to about $12 billion a year in 2007, adding up to somewhere between $120 billion and $240 billion over the years. See Edward Schumacher-Matos, “How Illegal Immigrants Are Helping Social Security,” Washington Post, September 3, 2010.
16. Susan Carroll, “Immigrant Drivers in US Now Face an Uncertain Road,” Houston Chronicle, January 11, 2011.
17. Julia Preston and Robert Gebeloff, “Some Unlicensed Drivers Risk More Than a Fine,” New York Times, December 9, 2010.
18. Ibid.
19. Dennis Romero, “Illegal Immigrants Can Now Drive in L.A. Without Fear of Having Cars Taken by Police,” LA Weekly Blog, February 28, 2012, http://blogs.laweekly.com/informer/2012/02/illegal_impound_tow_lapd_police_policy.php.
20. Maria Sacchetti, “Framingham, Barnstable No Longer Enforcing US Immigration Laws,” Boston Globe, October 1, 2009.
21. Mary MacDonald, “Local Officials Disappointed by Governor’s ‘No’ on Secure Communities,” Milford (MA) Patch, June 8, 2011, http://milford-ma.patch.com/articles/local-officials-disappointed-by-governors-no-on-secure-communities.
22. Michael John Garcia, Criminalizing Unlawful Presence: Selected Issues, CRS Report for Congress, May 3, 2006, http://trac.syr.edu/immigration/library/P585.pdf.
23. US Citizenship and Immigration Service, “Voluntary Departure,” http://www.uscis.gov/. See also Michael A. Pearson, Executive Associate Commissioner, Field Operations, Immigration and Naturalization Service, Statement before the Committee on Governmental Affairs Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations United States Senate Regarding Processing Persons Arrested for Illegal Entry into the United States Between Ports of Entry, November 13, 2001, http://www.aila.org/content/default.aspx?docid=6549.
24. US Citizenship and Immigration Service, “Deportation,” http://www.uscis.gov/portal/.
25. US Department of Homeland Security (DHS), Office of Immigration Statistics (OIS), “2011 Yearbook of Immigration Statistics,” table 39, p. 102, http://www.dhs.gov/sites/default/files/publications/immigration-statistics/yearbook/2011/ois_yb_2011.pdf.
26. Spencer H. Hsu, “Arrests on US-Mexico Border Decline 27%,” Washington Post, May 21, 2009; Lourdes Medrano, “Bullets vs. Rocks? Border Patrol Under Fire for Use of Deadly Force,” Christian Science Monitor, December 3, 2012; US Department of Homeland Security, “About Customs and Border Protection: Organization,” http://www.cbp.gov/xp/cgov/about/organization/assist_comm_off/.
27. US Department of Homeland Security, OIS, “2011 Yearbook,” table 35.
28. Encuesta sobre la Migración en la Frontera Norte de México, Boletín EMIF Norte 2011, http://www.colef.mx/emif/resultados/boletines/Boletin%20NTE%202011.pdf.
29. Andrew Becker, “Rebranding at ICE Meant to Soften Immigrati
on Enforcement Agency’s Image,” Washington Post, June 17, 2010.
30. CNBC, “Billions Behind Bars: Inside America’s Prison Industry,” 2011, http://www.cnbc.com/id/44762286/Billions_Behind_Bars_Inside_America039s_Prison_Industry; United States Bureau of Justice, “Direct Expenditures by Justice Function, 1982–2007 (Billions of Dollars),” http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/content/glance/tables/exptyptab.cfm. The $74 billion figure comes from 2007 and is the most recent data available.
31. Leo Ralph Chavez, The Latino Threat: Constructing Immigrants, Citizens, and the Nation, 2nd ed. (Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 2013), 24.
32. Ibid., 25.
33. American Civil Liberties Union, “Immigration Detention,” http://www.aclu.org/immigrants-rights/detention; Chris Kirkham, “Private Prisons Profit From Immigration Crackdown, Federal And Local Law Enforcement Partnerships,” Huffington Post, June 7, 2012, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/06/07/private-prisons-immigration-federal-law-enforcement_n_1569219.html.
34. Kirkham, “Private Prisons Profit.”
35. Amnesty International, “USA: Jailed Without Justice,” March 25, 2009, 1, http://www.amnestyusa.org/pdfs/JailedWithoutJustice.pdf.
36. Human Rights First, Jails and Jumpsuits: Transforming the US Immigration Detention System, a Two-Year Review, 2011, iv, http://www.humanrightsfirst.org/wp-content/uploads/pdf/HRF-Jails-and-Jumpsuits-report.pdf.
37. See the long history of Rodriguez v. Robbins compiled by the ACLU at http://www.aclu-sc.org/rodriguez/.
38. Amnesty International, “USA: Jailed without Justice,” 6.
39. Alistair Graham Robertson, Rachel Beaty, Jane Atkinson, and Bob Libal, Operation Streamline: Costs and Consequences, Grassroots Leadership, September 2012, 2, http://grassrootsleadership.org/files/GRL_Sept2012_Report%20final.pdf.
40. Ibid., 5.
41. Ibid., 6.
42. Ibid., 7.
43. US Sentencing Commission, “Overview of Federal Criminal Cases: Fiscal Year 2011,” 1–2, 9; TRAC Immigration, “Illegal Reentry Becomes Top Criminal Charge,” http://trac.syr.edu/immigration/reports/251/.
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