22. Quoted in Smith, 912-13.
23. Ibid., 913-14.
24. Ibid., 1156.
25. The American Heritage Book of the Revolution, 319.
26. Loudon, Narratives, vol. 1, 106.
27. Axelrod, Chronicle of the Indian Wars, 108.
28. The American Heritage Book of the Revolution, 318.
29. Loudon, Narratives, vol. 1, 104.
30. Waldman, Who Was Who, 42.
31. Gilbert, God Gave Us This Country, 107.
32. Smith, A New Age Now Begins, 1157-58.
33. Loudon, Narratives, vol. 1, 65-66.
34. Waldman, Who Was Who, 142; Esarey, A History of Indiana, 48.
35. Loudon, Narratives, vol. 1, 229-30.
36. Tebbel and Jennison, The American Indian Wars, 123.
37. Smith, A New Age Now Begins, 1159-60; Waldman, Who Was Who, 43.
38. Axelrod, Chronicle of the Indian Wars, 109.
39. Drimmer, Captured by the Indians, 105-18.
40. Smith, A New Age Now Begins, 1160.
41. Ibid., 1161-62.
42. Loudon, Narratives, vol. 1, 58-59.
43. Ibid., vol. 2, 193.
44. Loudon, vol. 1, 62-64; quoted in Sheehan, Seeds of Extinction, 204.
45. Smith, A New Age Now Begins, 1199-1210; Waldman, Who Was Who, 68-69.
46. Waldman, Who Was Who, 341-42.
47. Waldman, Atlas, 111.
48. Quoted in Smith, A New Age Now Begins, 1163.
49. Waldman, Who Was Who, 342.
50. Hagan, American Indians, 38; Tebbel and Jennison, The American Indian Wars, 70; Waldman, Who Was Who, 341-42.
51. Wilson, The Earth Shall Weep, 129.
52. Quoted in Axelrod, Chronicle of the Indian Wars, 112; Smith, A New Age Now Begins, 1170.
53. Smith, 1181.
54. Wilson, The Earth Shall Weep, 242.
55. Wilson chose to rely on oral Indian traditions when they conflicted with written reports. He said such written reports were by 17th-and 18th-century people who sometimes “straightforwardly lied” about the Indians. He added that even those writers sympathetic to the Indians “probably misinterpreted what they saw.” Wilson, 44. This stance is disturbing in that it implies that almost no written report can be relied upon if it conflicts with an oral Indian tradition.
56. Waldman, Who Was Who, 95.
57. Smith, A New Age Now Begins, 1171.
58. Loudon, Narratives, vol. 2, 69-159.
59. Boyd, Simon Girty, 123-25.
60. Ibid., 117-19.
61. Ibid., 119-20.
62. Sheehan, Seeds of Extinction, 187.
63. Drimmer, Captured by the Indians, 105-18.
64. Axelrod, Chronicle of the Indian Wars, 121.
65. Waldman, Atlas, 113.
66. Boyd, Simon Girty, 137-38; Sheehan, Seeds of Extinction, 187-88.
67. Axelrod, Chronicle of the Indian Wars, 121; Gilbert, God Gave Us This Country, 106.
68. Axelrod, 121.
69. Drimmer, Captured by the Indians, 120.
70. Ibid., 125.
71. Ibid., 125.
72. Loudon, Narratives, vol. 1, 1-15; Drimmer, Captured by the Indians, 119-29; Sheehan, Seeds of Extinction, 185-87. Dr. Knight’s description comes to us in 3 somewhat different forms, one from Loudon, one from Drimmer, and one from Sheehan. The material quoted in the text consists of direct quotes from all 3.
73. Loudon, vol. 1, 1-15; Drimmer, 119-29; Sheehan, 185-86.
74. Drimmer, 119.
75. Ibid., 120.
76. Loudon, Narratives, vol. 1, 60-62.
77. Drimmer, Captured by the Indians, 133.
78. Ibid., 134-35.
79. Ibid., 135.
80. Waldman, Who Was Who, 228.
81. Drimmer, Captured by the Indians, 137.
82. Ibid., 137.
83. Ibid., 138-41.
84. Waldman, Atlas, 114.
85. Tebbel and Jennison, The American Indian Wars, 79.
86. Quoted in part in Smith, A New Age Now Begins, 1762-72.
87. Loudon, Narratives, vol. 1, 33-34.
88. Gilbert, God Gave Us This Country, 109-10, 121.
89. Beveridge, Albert J., Abraham Lincoln, vol. 1 (1928), 11; Drimmer, Captured by the Indians, 14-15.
90. Gilbert, God Gave Us This Country, 126-27.
91. Waldman, Who Was Who, 350-51.
92. Gilbert, God Gave Us This Country, 126-27.
93. Ibid., 124.
94. Ibid., 109.
95. Drimmer, Captured by the Indians, 188-89.
96. Ibid., 189-92.
97. Ibid., 210.
98. Waldman, Who Was Who, 145.
99. Ibid., 206.
100. Axelrod, Chronicle of the Indian Wars, 124.
101. Esarey, A History of Indiana, 76-78.
102. Waldman, Encyclopedia, 132-33.
103. Gilbert, God Gave Us This Country, 137-39.
104. Quoted in Axelrod, Chronicle of the Indian Wars, 105.
105. Boyd, Simon Girty, 195-96.
106. Gilbert, God Gave Us This Country, 141-42.
107. Ibid., 142.
108. Waldman, Encyclopedia, 109-10.
109. Loudon, Narratives, vol. 1, 88-90.
110. Quoted in Loudon, vol. 1, 88-100.
111. Andrist, Long Death, 190.
112. Waldman, Who Was Who, 310-11.
113. Esarey, A History of Indiana, 116.
114. Quoted in Gilbert, God Gave Us This Country, 145.
115. Gilbert, 145-46.
116. Utley and Washburn, Indian Wars, 113.
117. Ibid., 113.
118. Axelrod, Chronicle of the Indian Wars, 125.
119. Utley and Washburn, Indian Wars, 114.
120. Gilbert, God Gave Us This Country, 150.
121. Tebbel and Jennison, The American Indian Wars, 84.
122. Quoted in Axelrod, Chronicle of the Indian Wars, 125-26.
123. Loudon, Narratives, vol. 1, 69-73.
124. Gilbert, God Gave Us This Country, 183.
125. Quoted in Sheehan, Seeds of Extinction, 204.
126. Sheehan, 204.
127. Ibid., 6.
128. Quoted in Sheehan, Seeds of Extinction, 197-98.
129. Drimmer, Captured by the Indians, 235.
130. Ibid., 224.
131. Quoted in Gilbert, God Gave Us This Country, 222-23. Tecumseh himself was an excellent orator. William Henry Harrison heard him reviewing atrocities against the Indians in 1803, including Gnadenhutten and the death of Moluntha described above. Harrison reported to the War Department, “Every instance of injustice and injury which have been committed by our citizens upon the Indians from the commencement of the revolutionary war (There are unfortunately too many of them) was brought forward and exaggerated.” Quoted in Gilbert, 206.
132. Loudon, Narratives, vol. 1, 107-10.
133. Ibid., vol. 2, 186.
134. Ibid., 187.
135. Ibid., 187-89.
136. Ibid., 309-11.
137. Ibid., 310-12.
138. Ibid., 313.
139. Ibid., 313-15.
140. Ibid., 316-17.
141. Kelly, My Captivity Among the Sioux, 238-40.
142. Brinkley, American Heritage History of the United States, 131.
143. Ibid., 131-32.
144. Wilson, The Earth Shall Weep, 156.
145. Brinkley, American Heritage History of the United States, 132-33.
146. Waldman, Who Was Who, 164-65.
147. Goodrich, Scalp Dance, 190.
148. Axelrod, Chronicle of the Indian Wars, 134.
149. Tebbel and Jennison, The American Indian Wars, 156.
150. Wilson, The Earth Shall Weep, 242.
151. Waldman, Atlas, 120-21.
152. Quoted in Carey, “A Study of the Indian Captivity Narratives,” 164.
153. Gilbert, God Gave Us This Country, 286-87.
154. Drimmer, Captured by the Indians, 256-57.
155. Ibid., 258-63.
156. Ibid., 263-64.
157. Quoted in Drimmer, 264-67.
158. Gilbert, God Gave Us This Country, 294.
159. Ibid., 297.
160. Waldman, Encyclopedia, 81.
161. Ibid., 179-81.
162. Ibid., 181.
163. Ibid., 179-81.
164. Washburn, The Indian in America, 19-20.
165. Josephy, Indian Heritage, 331.
166. Coward, The Newspaper Indian, 18.
Chapter 7: Atrocities from the Trails of Tears to the Civil War
1. Quoted in Sheehan, Seeds of Extinction, 244.
2. Sheehan, 245.
3. Spicer, The American Indians, 181.
4. The phrase “Trail of Tears” was given to their last removal by the Cherokee, but now the name means the removal of all 5 tribes. Waldman, Atlas, 185.
5. Prucha, Documents of United States Indian Policy, 52-53.
6. Remini, Robert V., The Legacy of Andrew Jackson: Essays on Democracy, Indian Removal, and Slavery (1988), 67.
7. Quoted in Prucha, Documents of United States Indian Policy, 55.
8. Ibid., 54.
9. Waldman, Encyclopedia, 63.
10. Ibid., 213-15.
11. Ibid., 74-75.
12. Ibid., 53-54.
13. Ibid., 43-48.
14. Waldman, Atlas, 183-85.
15. Foreman, Indian Removal, 399.
16. Ibid., 3.
17. Ibid., preface 2. In similar fashion, Helen Hunt Jackson stated, “The army are not responsible for Indian wars; they are ‘men under authority, who go where they are sent.’“ Jackson, A Century of Dishonor, xx.
18. Quoted in Utley and Washburn, Indian Wars, 140.
19. Axelrod, Chronicle of the Indian Wars, 143.
20. Exploring-party members David and Robert Folsom quoted in Foreman, Indian Removal, 31-32.
21. Foreman, 35.
22. Ibid., 42.
23. Ibid., 42.
24. Ibid., 47.
25. Quoted in Foreman, 98.
26. Ibid., 76-77.
27. Foreman, 88-89. Disease, especially dysentery and cholera, were tremendous problems at this time and even at later times. Both can be caused by infected water or food, and either can be found in cramped quarters such as a detainment camp. General Jackson himself got dysentery in the field a few years before he became president. Tebbel and Jennison, The American Indian Wars, 170.
28. Ambrose, Undaunted Courage, 225, 235.
29. Letter to Cherokee Phoenix quoted in Foreman, Indian Removal, 97.
30. Document quoted in Foreman, 79. U.S. Senate Document No. 512 is a compilation of the correspondence in the War Department concerning Indian removal from 1831 to 1833 and is cited hereafter as “Document.”
31. Foreman, 53.
32. Ibid., 53.
33. Ibid., 64-65.
34. Ibid., 69-70.
35. Quoted in Foreman, 63.
36. Document quoted in Foreman, 63-64.
37. Ibid., 63.
38. Foreman, 64.
39. Quoted in Foreman, 68-69.
40. Ibid., 72.
41. Foreman, 72.
42. Ibid., 66-67. A Choctaw council act of 1829 recognized that it was an old Choctaw custom to punish persons “said to be wizzards [sic] or witches with death, without giving them a fair trial” and sought to regulate the practice. Quoted in Foreman, 67.
43. Quoted in Foreman, 74.
44. Ibid., 83-84, 89.
45. Spicer, The American Indians, 84.
46. Waldman, Atlas, 122.
47. Quoted in Foreman, Indian Removal, 332.
48. Ibid., 333.
49. Foreman, 334.
50. Ibid., 339-40.
51. Army and Navy Chronicle quoted in Foreman, 343.
52. Foreman, 367-68.
53. Ibid., 370.
54. Ibid., 378.
55. Ibid., 385.
56. Document quoted in Foreman, 108.
57. Foreman, 126-28.
58. Ibid., 128.
59. Ibid., 152-57.
60. Ibid., 158.
61. Quoted in Foreman, 159.
62. Foreman, 160.
63. Ibid., 162-63.
64. Quoted in Foreman, 163-64.
65. Ibid., 160-62.
66. Ibid., 166.
67. Ibid., 170.
68. Ibid., 119.
69. Ibid., 173.
70. Ibid., 173-74.
71. Ibid., 176.
72. Ibid., 182-83.
73. Foreman, 185.
74. Ibid., 187.
75. Ibid.
76. Catlin, Letters and Notes, 396.
77. Foreman, Indian Removal, 197.
78. Quoted in Foreman, 206.
79. Foreman, 219.
80. Quoted in Foreman, 220.
81. Foreman, 209-12.
82. Quoted in Foreman, 222-23.
83. Foreman, 229.
84. Ibid., 231-32.
85. Wilson, The Earth Shall Weep, 170.
86. Remini, The Legacy of Andrew Jackson, 78.
87. Waldman, Atlas, 185.
88. Foreman, Indian Removal, 253.
89. Quoted in Foreman, 254.
90. Ibid., 257.
91. Foreman, 257.
92. Ibid., 260-61.
93. Quoted in Foreman, 262-63.
94. Foreman, 263.
95. Ibid., 273-74.
96. Quoted in Foreman, 287.
97. Foreman, 290-91.
98. Quoted in Foreman, 291-93.
99. Foreman, 294-96.
100. Ibid., 301.
101. Ibid., 299.
102. Ibid., 300.
103. Ibid., 300.
104. Ibid., 302-3.
105. Ibid., 310.
106. Ibid., 303.
107. Ibid., 305.
108. Ibid., 309,311.
109. Ibid., 311.
110. Catlin, Letters and Notes, 392.
111. Spicer, The American Indians, 81.
112. The report and recommendations are summarized in a pamphlet entitled An Overview of the Labor Market Problems of Indians and Native Americans, published in 1989 by the National Commission for Employment Policy. The report and recommendations are hereafter referred to simply as “Report from Overview.” This reference is from p. 3.
113. Wilson, in The Earth Shall Weep, p. 227, said that it was “the U.S. practice of forcibly removing Indians.” The only Indians forcibly removed (principally Cherokee) were those who agreed to leave for Oklahoma by a date stated in their treaty and then stayed beyond that time.
114. Spicer, The American Indians, 84.
115. Waldman, Atlas, 184.
116. Spicer, The American Indians, 88.
117. Ibid., 81.
118. Debo, A History of the Indians, 124.
119. Foreman, Indian Removal, 310.
120. The same method of making computations is used in Appendices B and C relating to the number of atrocity deaths.
121. Remini, The Legacy of Andrew Jackson, 47.
122. Ibid., 45.
123. Ibid., 81-82.
124. Foreman, Indian Removal, 386.
125. Jackson, A Century of Dishonor, 381-82.
126. Waldman, Encyclopedia, 86-87.
127. Quoted in Axelrod, Chronicle of the Indian Wars, 152.
128. Axelrod, 152.
129. Tebbel and Jennison, The American Indian Wars, 194.
130. Utley and Washburn, Indian Wars, 138.
131. Quoted in Waldman, Encyclopedia, 212.
132. Catlin, Letters and Notes, 271-72.
133. Tebbel and Jennison, The American Indian Wars, 216.
134. Waldman, Who Was Who, 259; Utley and Washburn in Indian Wars said that Dr. Weedon cut off Osceola’s head and kept it as a souvenir for years.
135. Matthiessen, Indian Country, 24-25.
136. Tebbel and Jennison, The American Indian Wars, 218.
137. Brandon, Indians, 239.
138. Waldman, Encyclopedia, 68-70.
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139. Washburn, The Indian in America, 173.
140. Richardson, The Comanche Barrier, 111.
141. Quoted in Washburn, The Indian in America, 178.
142. Waldman, Encyclopedia, 110-12.
143. Richardson, The Comanche Barrier, 348.
144. Debo, in A History of the Indians, p. 154, suggested the Indian children may have died because the Indians dealt with measles by giving a “treatment of a steam bath followed by a plunge in cold water.”
145. Brandon, Indians, 306-7.
146. Axelrod, Chronicle of the Indian Wars, 170.
147. Trafzer and Hyer, Exterminate Them!, 104; Andrist, Long Death, 204.
148. Spicer, The American Indians, 142.
149. Andrist, Long Death, 204-5; Trafzer and Hyer, Exterminate Them!, 104.
150. Driver, Indians of North America, 490.
151. Quoted in Trafzer and Hyer, Exterminate Them!, 65.
152. Quoted in Axelrod, Chronicle of the Indian Wars, 165.
153. Andrist, Long Death, 205.
154. Quoted in Debo, A History of the Indians, 159.
155. Trafzer and Hyer, Exterminate Them!, 12.
156. Spicer, The American Indians, 140.
157. Josephy, Indian Heritage, 332.
158. Trafzer and Hyer, Exterminate Them!, 43.
159. Axelrod, Chronicle of the Indian Wars, 165.
160. Trafzer and Hyer, Exterminate Them!, 30.
161. Quoted in Trafzer and Hyer, 128-29.
162. Trafzer and Hyer, 28.
163. Josephy, Indian Heritage, 332.
164. Trafzer and Hyer, Exterminate Them!, 18.
165. Jackson, A Century of Dishonor, 483.
166. Trafzer and Hyer, Exterminate Them!, 118.
167. Quoted in Trafzer and Hyer, 116-17.
168. Ibid., 120.
169. Ibid., 121.
170. Ibid., 121-22.
171. Ibid., 122.
172. Ibid., 51.
173. Ibid., 13, 65.
174. Ibid., 71.
175. Andrist, Long Death, 204-5.
176. Spicer, The American Indians, 142.
177. Trafzer and Hyer, Exterminate Them!, 17.
178. Ibid., 36.
179. Ibid., 37.
180. Ibid., 14.
181. Ibid., 114-15.
182. Ibid., 18.
183. Ibid., 56-58.
184. Ibid., 73.
185. Ibid., 39.
186. Ibid., 64.
187. Ibid., 74, 116.
188. Ibid., 112.
189. Ibid., 98-111.
190. Ibid., 98.
191. Ibid., 119.
192. Ibid., 43.
193. Ibid., 118.
194. Ibid., 107.
195. Ibid., 138.
196. Quoted in Bordewich, Killing the White Man’s Indian, 50.
197. Trafzer and Hyer, Exterminate Them!, 154. Trafzer and Hyer said on p. 136 that letters like this were “questionable at best,” yet they erroneously said the total of murdered whites in the letter was only 110 instead of 130.
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