The Wild Frontier
Page 45
277. Gilbert, God Gave Us This Country, 2.
278. The phrase “atrocities connected with a death” needs to be explained. The death of a soldier or warrior killed in battle is not an atrocity without more. If his body is mutilated in some way, for example, his head cut off and stuck on a pole, that is an atrocity, although his death was not.
279. Waldman, Atlas, 166.
280. Sheehan, Seeds of Extinction, 194.
281. Washburn, The Indian in America, 132.
282. Gilbert, God Gave Us This Country, 107.
283. Carey, “A Study of the Indian Captivity Narratives,” 125.
284. Wissler, Indians of the United States, 187.
285. Washburn, The Indian in America, 207.
286. West, The Contested Plains, 256.
287. Jackson, A Century of Dishonor, xx-xxi.
288. The Indianapolis Star, October 3, 1993, C10.
289. Gilbert, God Gave Us This Country, 294.
290. Marshall, Crimsoned Prairie, 28.
291. Ibid., 40.
292. Kelly, My Captivity Among the Sioux, 143-44.
293. Gilbert, God Gave Us This Country, 339-40.
294. Brogan, Denis William, The American Character (1944), 10.
Chapter 9: Some Other Aspects of the War
1. Quoted in Prucha, Documents of United States Indian Policy, 131.
2. Quoted in Dulles, Foster Rhea, The United States Since 1865 (1959), 40-41.
3. Quoted in Matthiessen, In the Spirit of Crazy Horse, 33.
4. Matthiessen, 441.
5. Andrist, Long Death, 154-55.
6. Axelrod, Chronicle of the Indian Wars, 34.
7. Driver, Indians of North America, 484.
8. Matthiessen, Indian Country, 247.
9. Quoted in Prucha, Documents of United States Indian Policy, 136.
10. Quoted in Prucha, 136.
11. Ibid., 136.
12. Debo, A History of the Indians, 118.
13. Spicer, The American Indians, 199.
14. Quoted in Bordewich, Killing the White Man’s Indian, 312.
15. Washburn, The Indian in America, 82. Felix Cohen is described as “the nation’s foremost expert on Indian law”; his book, Handbook of Federal Indian Law, is “the deepest reservoir of knowledge in its field and the bible of Indian rights advocates.” Lazarus, Black Hills/ White Justice, 185.
16. Hagan, American Indians, 56. It is not clear whether he was speaking of just Governor Harrison’s tenure or of the entire period from 1783.
17. Andrist, Long Death, 8.
18. Quoted in Prucha, Documents of United States Indian Policy, 231.
19. Lazarus, Black Hills/White Justice, 392-94.
20. Matthiessen, in Indian Country, p. 5, asserted without authority and contrary to law that the right of the tribes to stand upon the land was “inalienable.”
21. Bordewich, Killing the White Man’s Indian, 36, 104; Lazarus, Black Hills/ White Justice, 117, 413, 417.
22. Quoted in Prucha, Documents of United States Indian Policy, 35-37.
23. 30 American Jurisprudence, 465, citing Downes vs. Bidwell, 182 US 244, and United States vs. Huckabee, 16 Wall 414.
24. Spicer, The American Indians, 47.
25. Waldman, Atlas, 110.
26. Marshall, Crimsoned Prairie, 14.
27. Prucha, Documents of United States Indian Policy, 140.
28. Waldman, Atlas, 166-67.
29. Nash, Red, White, and Black, 300.
30. Hagan, American Indians, 94.
31. Washburn, The Indian in America, 106-7.
32. Bordewich, Killing the White Man’s Indian, 180.
33. Catlin, Letters and Notes, 488.
34. Ibid., 487.
35. Ibid., 491.
36. Waldman, Atlas, 166 (map).
37. Washburn, The Indian in America, 105-6.
38. Tebbel and Jennison, The American Indian Wars, 20.
39. Nash, Red, White, and Black, 78.
40. Washburn, The Indian in America, 105.
41. Andrist, Long Death, 14.
42. Ibid., 15.
43. Catlin, Letters and Notes, 489. Debo, in A History of the Indians, p. 154, added that measles would be treated by a steam bath followed by plunging into cold water.
44. Wilson, The Earth Shall Weep, 76. Apparently no other author mentions bubonic plague among the Indians. The disease almost vanished in the late 1800s, but entered New York City in 1899 and San Francisco the next year. It also appeared in New Orleans and Seattle. Fortunately, it has been stamped out wherever it has appeared in the United States. World Book, vol. 2, 545.
45. Axelrod, Chronicle of the Indian Wars, 160.
46. Ibid., 54.
47. Ibid., 83.
48. Ibid., 84.
49. Ibid., 89.
50. Hobhouse, Henry, Seeds of Change (1985), 39.
51. Ambrose, Undaunted Courage, 196.
52. Catlin, Letters and Notes, 228.
53. Waldman, Atlas, 60.
54. American Cancer Society, Cancer Facts and Figures—1993, 21.
55. Nash, Red, White, and Black, 267.
56. Gilbert, God Gave Us This Country, 122.
57. Quoted in Sheehan, Seeds of Extinction, 244.
58. Quoted in Axelrod, Chronicle of the Indian Wars, 165.
59. Waldman, Atlas, 139.
60. Quoted in Debo, A History of the Indians, 159.
61. Quoted in Trafzer and Hyer, Exterminate Them!, 1.
62. Quoted in Hagan, American Indians, 104.
63. Ibid., 117.
64. Quoted in Andrist, Long Death, 331.
65. Bordewich, Killing the White Man’s Indian, 37.
66. Axelrod, Chronicle of the Indian Wars, vii.
67. Josephy, Indian Heritage, 279.
68. Waldman, Atlas, 87.
69. Ibid., 87.
70. Sheehan, Seeds of Extinction, 43fn.
71. Quoted in Ambrose, Undaunted Courage, 53.
72. Wissler, Indians of the United States, 280.
73. Axelrod, Chronicle of the Indian Wars, 157.
74. Wilson, The Earth Shall Weep, 423-24.
75. Lunt, W. E., History of England (1945).
Chapter 10: Government Indian Policy
1. Waldman, Atlas, 190.
2. “It is infinitely better to have no heathen among us, who were but as thornes in our sides, than to be at peace and league with them,” wrote Wyatt. Utley and Washburn, Indian Wars, 17.
3. Washburn, The Indian in America, 211-12.
4. Waldman, Atlas, 190.
5. Ibid.
6. Esarey, A History of Indiana, 89.
7. Axelrod, Chronicle of the Indian Wars, 123.
8. Hagan, American Indians, 46.
9. Gilbert, God Gave Us This Country, 134.
10. Ibid., 134-35.
11. Quoted in Gilbert, 186.
12. Wallbank and Taylor, Civilization—Past and Present, vol. 2, 229.
13. Knox and Crawford quoted in Sheehan, Seeds of Extinction, 121-23.
14. Prucha, Documents of United States Indian Policy, 18.
15. Sheehan, Seeds of Extinction, 268.
16. Esarey, A History of Indiana, 230.
17. Washburn, The Indian in America, 205.
18. Axelrod, Chronicle of the Indian Wars, 211.
19. Quoted in Hays, A Race at Bay, 55.
20. Lazarus, Black Hills/White Justice, 32.
21. Spicer, The American Indians, 181.
22. Report from Overview, 4.
23. Utley and Washburn, Indian Wars, 193.
24. Washburn, The Indian in America, 209.
25. Utley and Washburn, Indian Wars, 289.
26. Ibid., 226-31.
27. Axelrod, Chronicle of the Indian Wars, 212.
28. Prucha, Documents of United States Indian Policy, 171-74.
29. Report from Overview, 4; Driver said these figures are about the same, 138,000,000 in 1887 and 48,000,000 in 1934. Driver, Indians of Nor
th America, 491.
30. Spicer, The American Indians, 184; Prucha, Documents of United States Indian Policy, 197-98.
31. Prucha, 219; Debo, in A History of the Indians, p. 336, summarized the report by saying it indicated that the condition of the Indians was deplorable for several reasons.
32. Wilson, The Earth Shall Weep, 342.
33. Spicer, The American Indians, 190-91.
34. Waldman, Atlas, 194; Spicer, The American Indians, 194.
35. Prucha, Documents of United States Indian Policy, 233.
36. Spicer, The American Indians, 194.
37. Waldman, Atlas, 194.
38. Quoted in Prucha, Documents of United States Indian Policy, 257.
39. Ibid., 257.
40. Report from Overview, 6.
41. Quoted in Prucha, Documents of United States Indian Policy, 301.
42. Quoted in Utley and Washburn, Indian Wars, 291.
43. Esarey, A History of Indiana, 90.
44. Quoted in Gilbert, God Gave Us This Country, 133.
45. Gilbert, 133.
46. Axelrod, Chronicle of the Indian Wars, 158.
47. Hagan, American Indians, 111-12.
48. Waldman, Who Was Who, 379-80.
49. Ibid., 379-80.
50. Quoted in Washburn, The Indian in America, 216.
51. Ibid., 216.
52. Ibid., 216.
53. Waldman, Who Was Who, 380.
54. Quoted in Wilson, The Earth Shall Weep, 291.
55. Hays, The Newspaper Indian, 212-13.
56. Quoted in Hays, 24.
57. Jackson, A Century of Dishonor, xx.
58. Lazarus, Black Hills/White Justice, 105.
59. Hagan, American Indians, 126-27.
60. Bordewich, Killing the White Mans Indian, 293.
61. Ibid., 293.
62. U. S. News & World Report, February 22, 1993, 26.
63. U. S. News & World Report, November 28, 1994, 61-64.
64. AP, December 24, 1998, release.
65. AP, January 7, 1999, release.
66. Quoted in AP, February 23, 1999, release.
67. Quoted in Sarasota Herald-Tribune, February 23, 1999, 14A.
68. Ibid., 14A.
69. AP, May 14, 1999, release.
70. AP, June 10, 1999, release.
71. AP, June 7, 1999, release.
72. AP, June 25, 1999, release.
Chapter 11: Where We Are and Where We May Go
1. Schlesinger, The Disuniting of America, 136-37.
2. Beveridge, Albert J., Abraham Lincoln, vol. 1 (1928), 1.
3. Contemporary Authors, New Revision Series, vol. 11, 94.
4. Coward, The Newspaper Indian, 121.
5. Brown, Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee, xvii.
6. Ibid., 4.
7. Ibid., introduction.
8. Wilson, The Earth Shall Weep, 393, 418.
9. Schlesinger, The Disuniting of America, 93.
10. Ibid., 52.
11. Hagan, American Indians, 5.
12. Ibid., 6.
13. Ibid., 4.
14. Ibid., 4-5.
15. Ibid., 5.
16. Utley and Washburn, Indian Wars, 146.
17. Washburn, The Indian in America, 80.
18. Josephy, Indian Heritage, 320.
19. Debo, A History of the Indians, 70.
20. Bordewich, Killing the White Man’s Indian, 332.
21. Sheehan, Seeds of Extinction, 219.
22. Josephy, Indian Heritage, 364.
23. Bordewich, Killing the White Man’s Indian, 13.
24. Mona Charen, Indianapolis Star, July 12, 1999, A6.
25. Matthiessen, Indian Country, 46.
26. Josephy, Indian Heritage, 378.
27. Bordewich, Killing the White Man’s Indian, 78.
28. Waldman, Atlas, 200.
29. Wilson, The Earth Shall Weep, xxiv.
30. United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, document number CP-1-1A.
31. AP, July 7, 1999, release.
32. That figure has risen to 63 percent according to an AP, July 7, 1999, release.
33. Estimated by the government to be only 50 percent in 1999. AP, July 7, 1999, release.
34. Bureau of the Census, We, the First Americans, 5-7. The government reported in 1999 that Indian per capita income was $21,619. AP, July 7, 1999, release.
35. Washburn, The Indian in America, 274.
36. Waldman, Atlas, 210-11.
37. Washburn, The Indian in America, 272.
38. Hagan, American Indians, 172-73.
39. The Economist, December 19, 1992, 29 (at least 50 percent).
40. Bordewich, Killing the White Man’s Indian, 57.
41. The Economist, December 19, 1992, 29.
42. Bordewich, Killing the White Man’s Indian, 302-9.
43. Quoted in National Geographic, April 1979, 494-505.
44. The Kickapoos demonstrate that Indian culture can be maintained despite upheavals. “Kickapoo history is in many respects the most remarkable of all the Indian histories in the United States. Some of them have maintained the major elements of their aboriginal way of life through 350 years of the most varied social and physical conditions experienced by an Indian group…. Yet even without a long-sustained and stable land base, many kept their traditional ways…. [In Oklahoma] each time BIA employees attempted to force cultural assimilation programs on them … [they refused].” Spicer, The American Indians, 65, 69-70.
45. Quoted in Brodie, Thomas Jefferson, 434.
Appendix A: Intertribal Indian Wars
1. Nash, Red, White, and Black, 18.
2. Washburn, The Indian in America, 63-64.
3. Axelrod, Chronicle of the Indian Wars, 2.
4. Ibid., 4.
5. Nash, Red, White, and Black, 18.
6. Wissler, Indians of the United States, 69.
7. Josephy, Indian Heritage, 93; Wissler, in Indians of the United States, p. 70, said, “The Algonkin were not merely at war with the Iroquois but often with each other. There were about a hundred Algonkin tribes, all independent like tiny nations, all sooner or later quarreling and starting feuds—little vicious circles impossible to break. In revenge for past injuries a few members of one tribe would stealthily approach the camp of a hostile tribe, take a scalp or two and escape if they could.”
8. Steele, Warpaths, 39.
9. Lazarus, Black Hills/White Justice, 117.
10. Ibid., 413, 417.
11. Waldman, Encyclopedia, 146.
12. Debo, A History of the Indians, 67.
13. Gilbert, God Gave Us This Country, 42-43.
14. Wissler, Indians of the United States, 69.
15. Nash, Red, White, and Black, 53.
16. Ibid., 76.
17. Josephy, Indian Heritage, 301.
18. Steele, Warpaths, 73.
19. Waldman, Atlas, 95. The Mohawk were members of the Iroquois Confederacy.
20. Tebbel and Jennison, The American Indian Wars, 35.
21. Nash, Red, White, and Black, 79.
22. Matthiessen, Indian Country, 89.
23. Ibid., 90.
24. Tebbel and Jennison, The American Indian Wars, 55.
25. Ibid., 55.
26. Waldman, Atlas, 90-91.
27. Ibid., 91.
28. Ibid., 93-94.
29. Brandon, Indians, 187.
30. Utley and Washburn, Indian Wars, 45.
31. Steele, Warpaths, 32.
32. Driver, Indians of North America, 217. Between 6,000 and 8,000 Hurons retreated to an island, where all but 500 starved to death.
33. Josephy, 500 Nations, 233.
34. Wissler, Indians of the United States, 183.
35. Ibid., 183.
36. Gilbert, God Gave Us This Country, 39.
37. Waldman, Atlas, 94.
38. Axelrod, Chronicle of the Indian Wars, 46.
39. Steele, Warpaths, 73.
40. Ibid., 118.
4
1. Esarey, A History of Indiana, 10-11.
42. Utley and Washburn, Indian Wars, 28-29.
43. Spicer, The American Indians, 57.
44. Steele, Warpaths, 51.
45. Waldman, Atlas, 92-93.
46. Axelrod, Chronicle of the Indian Wars, 34.
47. Debo, A History of the Indians, 48.
48. Axelrod, Chronicle of the Indian Wars, 50.
49. Hyde, George E., Indians of the Woodlands from Prehistoric Times to 1725 (1962), 269.
50. Robinson, A Good Year to Die, 5.
51. Wissler, Indians of the United States, 134.
52. Ibid., 134.
53. Axelrod, Chronicle of the Indian Wars, 49.
54. Spicer, The American Indians, 107-8.
55. Nash, Red, White, and Black, 133.
56. Brandon, Indians, 196.
57. Ibid., 196.
58. Waldman, Encyclopedia, 106.
59. Waldman, Atlas, 94.
60. Esarey, A History of Indiana, 11.
61. Waldman, Encyclopedia, 102.
62. Nash, Red, White, and Black, 231.
63. Wissler, Indians of the United States, 135.
64. Washburn, The Indians in America, 94.
65. Spicer, The American Indians, 31.
66. Steele, Warpaths, 125.
67. Spicer, The American Indians, 99.
68. Nash, Red, White, and Black, 140.
69. Waldman, Encyclopedia, 75.
70. Lazarus, Black Hills/White Justice, 4.
71. Richardson, The Comanche Barrier, 15.
72. Marshall, Crimsoned Prairie, 7.
73. Ibid., 7.
74. Ibid., 7.
75. Ibid., 7.
76. Debo, A History of the Indians, 74.
77. Ibid., 74-75. The Choctaw took about 400 Chickasaw scalps when they captured 3 Chickasaw villages.
78. Ibid., 75.
79. Nash, Red, White, and Black, 135.
80. Ibid., 136.
81. Steele, Warpaths, 152-53.
82. Ibid., 153.
83. Nash, Red, White, and Black, 133.
84. Waldman, Atlas, 215.
85. Richardson, The Comanche Barrier, 52.
86. Spicer, The American Indians, 80.
87. Steele, Warpaths, 163.
88. Debo, A History of the Indians, 78.
89. Axelrod, Chronicle of the Indian Wars, 62.
90. Steele, Warpaths, 163.
91. Ibid., 163. “Fox warriors were raiding virtually all their neighboring tribes.”
92. Debo, A History of the Indians, 6.