longer than their peers E. J. Langer and J. Rodin, “The Effects of Choice and Enhanced Personal Responsibility for the Aged: A Field Experiment in an Institutional Setting,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 34, no. 2 (1976): 191–98.
food into their mouths Margaret W. Sullivan and Michael Lewis, “Contextual Determinants of Anger and Other Negative Expressions in Young Infants,” Developmental Psychology 39, no. 4 (2003): 693.
freedom to choose Leotti and Delgado, “Inherent Reward of Choice.”
Psychological Science in 2011 Ibid.
autonomy and self-determination Erika A. Patall, Harris Cooper, and Jorgianne Civey Robinson, “The Effects of Choice on Intrinsic Motivation and Related Outcomes: A Meta-Analysis of Research Findings,” Psychological Bulletin 134, no. 2 (2008): 270; Deborah J. Stipek and John R. Weisz, “Perceived Personal Control and Academic Achievement,” Review of Educational Research 51, no. 1 (1981): 101–37; Steven W. Abrahams, “Goal-Setting and Intrinsic Motivation: The Effects of Choice and Performance Frame-of-Reference” (PhD diss., Columbia University, 1989); Teresa M. Amabile and Judith Gitomer, “Children’s Artistic Creativity Effects of Choice in Task Materials,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 10, no. 2 (1984): 209–15; D’Arcy A. Becker, “The Effects of Choice on Auditors’ Intrinsic Motivation and Performance,” Behavioral Research in Accounting 9 (1997); Dan Stuart Cohen, “The Effects of Task Choice, Monetary, and Verbal Reward on Intrinsic Motivation: A Closer Look at Deci’s Cognitive Evaluation Theory” (PhD diss., Ohio State University, 1974); Diana I. Cordova and Mark R. Lepper, “Intrinsic Motivation and the Process of Learning: Beneficial Effects of Contextualization, Personalization, and Choice,” Journal of Educational Psychology 88, no. 4 (1996): 715; Hsiao d’Ailly, “The Role of Choice in Children’s Learning: A Distinctive Cultural and Gender Difference in Efficacy, Interest, and Effort,” Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science 36, no. 1 (2004): 17; Edward L. Deci, The Psychology of Self-Determination (New York: Free Press, 1980); J. B. Detweiler, R. J. Mendoza, and M. R. Lepper, “Perceived Versus Actual Choice: High Perceived Choice Enhances Children’s Task Engagement,” 8th Annual Meeting of the American Psychological Society, San Francisco, 1996; John J. M. Dwyer, “Effect of Perceived Choice of Music on Exercise Intrinsic Motivation,” Health Values: The Journal of Health Behavior, Education and Promotion 19, no. 2 (1995): 18–26; Gregory G. Feehan and Michael E. Enzle, “Subjective Control over Rewards: Effects of Perceived Choice of Reward Schedule on Intrinsic Motivation and Behavior Maintenance,” Perceptual and Motor Skills 72, no. 3 (1991): 995–1006; Terri Flowerday, Gregory Schraw, and Joseph Stevens, “The Role of Choice and Interest in Reader Engagement,” The Journal of Experimental Education 72, no. 2 (2004): 93–114; Claus A. Hallschmidt, “Intrinsic Motivation: The Effects of Task Choice, Reward Magnitude and Reward Choice” (PhD diss., University of Alberta, 1977); Sheena S. Iyengar and Mark R. Lepper, “Rethinking the Value of Choice: A Cultural Perspective on Intrinsic Motivation,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 76, no. 3 (1999): 349; Keven A. Prusak et al., “The Effects of Choice on the Motivation of Adolescent Girls in Physical Education,” Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 23, no. 1 (2004): 19–29; Johnmarshall Reeve, Glen Nix, and Diane Hamm, “Testing Models of the Experience of Self-Determination in Intrinsic Motivation and the Conundrum of Choice,” Journal of Educational Psychology 95, no. 2 (2003): 375; Romin W. Tafarodi, Alan B. Milne, and Alyson J. Smith, “The Confidence of Choice: Evidence for an Augmentation Effect on Self-Perceived Performance,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 25, no. 11 (1999): 1405–16; Miron Zuckerman et al., “On the Importance of Self-Determination for Intrinsically-Motivated Behavior,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 4, no. 3 (1978): 443–46.
on a new life In response to a fact-checking email, Colonel Robert Gruny, commanding officer, Recruit Training Regiment, MCRD San Diego, wrote: “From the moment the recruits first step off of the bus onto the yellow footprints they are exposed to a degree of collective shock and stress that is designed to emphasize teamwork [and] obedience to orders and to reinforce the fact that they are entering into a new phase of their life in which selfless dedication to each other is coveted far more than individual achievement. In addition to the medical processing and haircuts reference above night one includes being checked for contraband, the very practical tasks of administrative processing and clothing issue, and making an initial call home to inform their parents or other designated individual that they have arrived safely at the Recruit Depot.”
“their whole life” In response to a fact-checking email, Colonel Gruny wrote regarding Krulak’s reforms: “The series of reforms were centered on the institution of values based training into recruit training and the introduction of the Crucible. While self-motivation and leadership were certainly enhanced by these reforms they also focused on teamwork, followership, and core values development (honor, courage, and commitment). Gen. Krulak sought to embed a training philosophy that resulted in our Marines making the right kind of values based decisions, in combat or in peacetime.”
best course of action For my understanding of USMC boot camp, I am indebted to General Krulak and Major Neil A. Ruggiero, director of public affairs at MCRD San Diego/Western Recruiting Region. Additionally, I am indebted to Thomas E. Ricks and his book Making the Corps (New York: Scribner, 2007). I have also drawn upon Vincent Martino, Jason A. Santamaria, and Eric K. Clemons, The Marine Corps Way: Using Maneuver Warfare to Lead a Winning Organization (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2005); James Woulfe, Into the Crucible: Making Marines for the 21st Century (Novato, Calif.: Presidio Press, 2009); Jon R. Katzenbach, Peak Performance: Aligning the Hearts and Minds of Your Employees (Boston: Harvard Business Press, 2000); Megan M. Thompson and Donald R. McCreary, Enhancing Mental Readiness in Military Personnel (Toronto: Defense Research and Development, 2006); Ross R. Vickers Jr. and Terry L. Conway, “Changes in Perceived Locus of Control During Basic Training” (1984); Raymond W. Novaco et al., Psychological and Organizational Factors Related to Attrition and Performance in Marine Corps Recruit Training, no. AR-001 (Seattle: Washington University Department of Psychology, 1979); Thomas M. Cook, Raymond W. Novaco, and Irwin G. Sarason, “Military Recruit Training as an Environmental Context Affecting Expectancies for Control of Reinforcement,” Cognitive Therapy and Research 6, no. 4 (1982): 409–27.
since the 1950s Julian B. Rotter, “Generalized Expectancies for Internal Versus External Control of Reinforcement,” Psychological Monographs: General and Applied 80, no. 1 (1966): 1; Timothy A. Judge et al., “Are Measures of Self-Esteem, Neuroticism, Locus of Control, and Generalized Self-Efficacy Indicators of a Common Core Construct?” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 83, no. 3 (2002): 693; Herbert M. Lefcourt, Locus of Control: Current Trends in Theory and Research (Hillsdale, N.J.: L. Erlbaum, 1982); Cassandra Bolyard Whyte, “High-Risk College Freshmen and Locus of Control,” Humanist Educator 16, no. 1 (1977): 2–5; Angela Roddenberry and Kimberly Renk, “Locus of Control and Self-Efficacy: Potential Mediators of Stress, Illness, and Utilization of Health Services in College Students,” Child Psychiatry and Human Development 41, no. 4 (2010): 353–70; Victor A. Benassi, Paul D. Sweeney, and Charles L. Dufour, “Is There a Relation Between Locus of Control Orientation and Depression?” Journal of Abnormal Psychology 97, no. 3 (1988): 357.
“Internal locus of control” Alexandra Stocks, Kurt A. April, and Nandani Lynton, “Locus of Control and Subjective Well-Being: A Cross-Cultural Study,” Problems and Perspectives in Management 10, no. 1 (2012): 17–25.
difficult puzzles Claudia M. Mueller and Carol S. Dweck, “Praise for Intelligence Can Undermine Children’s Motivation and Performance,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 75, no 1 (1998): 33.
that study, told me The specific experiment conducted by Professor Dweck described in this chapter was focused on her implicit theory of intelligence rather than locus of control. In an interview, she drew comparisons b
etween that work and its implications for understanding locus of control.
“in control of themselves” For more on Professor Dweck’s fascinating research, I recommend Carol S. Dweck and Ellen L. Leggett, “A Social-Cognitive Approach to Motivation and Personality,” Psychological Review 95, no. 2 (1988): 256; Carol S. Dweck, “Motivational Processes Affecting Learning,” American Psychologist 41, no 10 (1986): 1040; Carol S. Dweck, Chi-yue Chiu, and Ying-yi Hong, “Implicit Theories and Their Role in Judgments and Reactions: A Word from Two Perspectives,” Psychological Inquiry 6, no. 4 (1995): 267–85; Carol Dweck, Mindset: The New Psychology of Success (New York: Random House, 2006).
ketchup bottles In response to a fact-checking email, Colonel Jim Gruny, commanding officer, Recruit Training Regiment, MCRD San Diego, wrote that “this sounds like a scenario that may have been accurate at the time the Marine describing it experienced recruit training. Recruits no longer clean mess halls. That said, this scenario does accurately illustrate the methods used by our drill instructors and the lessons they seek to impart on our recruits.”
obstacle courses In response to a fact-checking email, a spokesman for the USMC stressed that recruits are under supervision during the entirety of the Crucible, and that the area where the Crucible takes place is USMC property. In California, the Crucible takes place within Camp Pendleton; in Parris Island, South Carolina, it is an area around an old airstrip. Colonel Jim Gruny, commanding officer, Recruit Training Regiment, MCRD San Diego, wrote that “General Krulak pioneered the use of values-based training and a crucible to cement it among recruits. Krulak said his original intent for the Crucible as a culminating event was threefold. First, it would be the drill instructor’s last opportunity to give a ‘go or no go’ to the individual recruit. Second, it would ‘emphasize and reinforce all the core values training that was ongoing throughout recruit training’…Last, it would ‘bring the recruit from an emphasis on self-discipline to where we want them to be in combat, which is selflessness.’…Failure to complete the Crucible may require a recruit to be recycled to another Company with which he can undergo the Crucible again. He will only be dropped from the Marine Corps if he repeatedly fails to complete the Crucible or if he suffers an injury that prevents further military service.” Colonel Christopher Nash, commanding officer, Weapons and Field Training Battalion, wrote: “The Crucible is a 54-hour endurance event that marks the transformation from civilian to U.S. Marine. Recruits, over a three day period, will travel approximately 68 km on foot, eat no more than three MREs for the duration of the event and operate with less than four hours of sleep a night. The focus of the Crucible is core values and teamwork. Recruits must overcome 24 stations/obstacles, participate in three core values discussions and two night endurance events during the three days. No event can be completed alone. The Crucible culminates with a 16 km ‘Reaper’ hike in which an emblem ceremony occurs. During this event recruits earn the title Marine.”
during basic training Joey E. Klinger, “Analysis of the Perceptions of Training Effectiveness of the Crucible at Marine Corps Recruit Depot, San Diego” (PhD diss., Naval Postgraduate School, 1999); S. P. Dynan, Updating Tradition: Necessary Changes to Marine Corps Recruit Training (Quantico, Va.: Marine Corps Command and Staff College, 2006); M. C. Cameron, Crucible Marine on Point: Today’s Entry-Level Infantry Marine (Quantico, Va.: Marine Corps Command and Staff College, 2006); Michael D. Becker, “ ‘We Make Marines’: Organizational Socialization and the Effects of ‘The Crucible’ on the Values Orientation of Recruits During US Marine Corps Training” (PhD diss., Indiana University of Pennsylvania, 2013); Benjamin Eiseman, “Into the Crucible: Making Marines for the 21st Century,” Military Review 80, no. 1 (2000): 94; Terry Terriff, “Warriors and Innovators: Military Change and Organizational Culture in the US Marine Corps,” Defense Studies 6, no. 2 (2006): 215–47; Antonio B. Smith, United States Marine Corps’ Entry-Level Training for Enlisted Infantrymen: The Marginalization of Basic Warriors (Quantico, Va.: Marine Corps Command and Staff College, 2001); William Berris, Why General Krulak Is the Marine Corps’ Greatest Strategic Leader (Carlisle Barracks, Penn.: U.S. Army War College, 2011); Terry Terriff, “Of Romans and Dragons: Preparing the US Marine Corps for Future Warfare,” Contemporary Security Policy 28, no. 1 (2007): 143–62; Marie B. Caulfield, Adaptation to First Term Enlistment Among Women in the Marine Corps (Boston: Veterans Administration Medical Center, 2000); Craig M. Kilhenny, “An Organizational Analysis of Marine Corps Recruit Depot, San Diego” (PhD diss., Naval Postgraduate School, 2003); Larry Smith, The Few and the Proud: Marine Corps Drill Instructors in Their Own Words (New York: W. W. Norton, 2007); Thomas M. Cook, Raymond W. Novaco, and Irwin G. Sarason, “Military Recruit Training as an Environmental Context Affecting Expectancies for Control of Reinforcement,” Cognitive Therapy and Research 6, no. 4 (1982): 409–27; Ross R. Vickers Jr. and Terry L. Conway, The Marine Corps Basic Training Experience: Psychosocial Predictors of Performance, Health, and Attrition (San Diego: Naval Health Research Center, 1983); Ross R. Vickers Jr. and Terry L. Conway, “Changes in Perceived Locus of Control During Basic Training” (paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Psychological Association: Toronto, Canada, August 24–28 (1984); Thomas M. Cook, Raymond W. Novaco, and Irwin G. Sarason, Generalized Expectancies, Life Experiences, and Adaptation to Marine Corps Recruit Training (Seattle: Washington University: Department of Psychology, 1980); R. R. Vickers Jr. et al., The Marine Corps Training Experience: Correlates of Platoon Attrition Rate Differences (San Diego: Naval Health Research Center, 1983).
force upon them Rosalie A. Kane et al., “Everyday Matters in the Lives of Nursing Home Residents: Wish for and Perception of Choice and Control,” Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 45, no. 9 (1997): 1086–93; Rosalie A. Kane et al., “Quality of Life Measures for Nursing Home Residents,” The Journals of Gerontology Series A: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences 58, no. 3 (2003): 240–48; James R. Reinardy and Rosalie A. Kane, “Anatomy of a Choice: Deciding on Assisted Living or Nursing Home Care in Oregon,” Journal of Applied Gerontology 22, no. 1 (2003): 152–74; Robert L. Kane and Rosalie A. Kane, “What Older People Want from Long-Term Care, and How They Can Get It,” Health Affairs 20, no. 6 (2001): 114–27; William J. McAuley and Rosemary Blieszner, “Selection of Long-Term Care Arrangements by Older Community Residents,” The Gerontologist 25, no. 2 (1985): 188–93; Bart J. Collopy, “Autonomy in Long Term Care: Some Crucial Distinctions,” The Gerontologist 28, supplement (1988): 10–17; Elizabeth H. Bradley et al., “Expanding the Andersen Model: The Role of Psychosocial Factors in Long-Term Care Use,” Health Services Research 37, no. 5 (2002): 1221–42; Virginia G. Kasser and Richard M. Ryan, “The Relation of Psychological Needs for Autonomy and Relatedness to Vitality, Well-Being, and Mortality in a Nursing Home: Effects of Control and Predictability on the Physical and Psychological Well-Being of the Institutionalized Aged,” Journal of Applied Social Psychology 29, no. 5 (1999): 935–54; James F. Fries, “The Compression of Morbidity,” The Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly: Health and Society 83, no. 4 (2005): 801–23; Richard Schulz, “Effects of Control and Predictability on the Physical and Psychological Well-Being of the Institutionalized Aged,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 33, no. 5 (1976): 563.
They didn’t feel anything In response to a fact-checking email, Habib expanded upon his comments and said that rather than categorize the patients as not understanding feelings, it might be more accurate to say “it is a matter of expression of feelings, more than feeling itself. They can recall what they felt before, and there is no evidence they cannot feel it anymore. Instead, it seems that since they have no more manifestations of seeking satisfaction, they look like they had no feeling. This is also an intriguing observation, since it suggests that the intensity of feelings is dependent upon the individual’s capacity of seeking satisfaction or reward.”
CHAPTER TWO: TEAMS
school’s websites explained Alex Roberts, “What a Real Study G
roup Looks Like,” Yale School of Management, MBA Blog, August 31, 2010, http://som.yale.edu/what-real-study-group-looks.
“didn’t gel.” In an email sent in response to fact-checking questions, Julia Rozovsky wrote: “There were a few members of my study group that I developed close friendships with, however I was much closer to my case study team.”
first in the nation “Yale SOM Team Wins National Net Impact Case Competition,” Yale School of Management, November 10, 2011, http://som.yale.edu/news/news/yale-som-team-wins-national-net-impact-case-competition.
were at Yale In an email sent in response to fact-checking questions, Julia Rozovsky wrote: “We chose to enter the competition each time. Each competition was a separate team/entry/packet/process. I just happened to work with the same team fairly consistently.”
spent their time In an email sent in response to fact-checking questions, a Google spokeswoman wrote that “People Analytics’ overarching theme is that we study the key drivers of Health, Happiness and Productivity of Googlers in a scientific and rigorous way….No one part of Google controls or oversees hiring or promo, but rather it is shared with Googlers themselves, with managers, etc.” For more on Google’s approach to human resources, please see Thomas H. Davenport, Jeanne Harris, and Jeremy Shapiro, “Competing on Talent Analytics,” Harvard Business Review 88, no. 10 (2010): 52–58; John Sullivan, “How Google Became the #3 Most Valuable Firm by Using People Analytics to Reinvent HR,” ERE Media, February 25, 2013, http://www.eremedia.com/ere/how-google-became-the-3-most-valuable-firm-by-using-people-analytics-to-reinvent-hr/; David A. Garvin, “How Google Sold Its Engineers on Management,” Harvard Business Review 91, no. 12 (2013): 74–82; Adam Bryant, “Google’s Quest to Build a Better Boss,” The New York Times, March 12, 2011; Laszlo Bock, Work Rules! Insights from Inside Google That Will Transform the Way You Live and Lead (New York: Twelve, 2015).
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