29. L. Lazarev, Shestoi etazh. Kniga vospominaniia (Moscow, 1999), pp. 202–3.
30. RGALI, f. 1814, op. 9, d. 1532, l. 4; d. 775, l. 1; interviews with Fania Laskina, Moscow, June and September 2003; Pushnova, Valentina Serova, pp. 181–2, 290; T. Okunevskaia, Tat’ianin den’ (Moscow, 1998), pp. 119–20.
31. See e.g. RGALI, f. 1814, op. 1, d. 765, ll. 15, 66, 68, 77.
32. RGALI, f. 1814, op. 9, d. 1530, l. 2; d. 1533, ll. 29–30.
33. RGALI, f. 1814, op. 9, d. 2768, l. 10; d. 1, l. 1; d. 1533, ll. 18–19; d. 2768, l. 15.
34. RGALI, f. 1814, op. 9, d. 1, l. 3.
35. RGALI, f. 1814, op. 9, d. 1533, l. 19.
36. N. Ivanova, ‘Konstantin Simonov “Glazami cheloveka moego pokoleniia”’, Znamia, 1997, no. 7; RGALI, f. 1814, op. 10, d. 339, l. 8; interview with Aleksei Simonov, London, May 2004; interview with Marina Babak, Moscow, November 2003.
37. RGALI, f. 1814, op. 6, d. 170, l. 17; interview with Aleksei Simonov, Moscow, September 2003; Lazarev, Shestoi etazh, p. 213.
38. Karaganov, Konstantin Simonov, pp. 9–10; A. Simonov, Chastnaia kollektsiia (Nizhny Novgorod, 1999), pp. 22–4; SLFA, Zhenia Laskina to Vladimir Lugovskoi, 28 August 1943; Sonia Laskina to Vladimir Lugovskoi, 21 August 1943; interview with Lazar Lazarev, Moscow, November 2003; RGALI, f. 1814, op. 9, d. 1812, ll. 1–2.
39. RGALI, f. 1814, op. 10, d. 339, l. 20; K. Simonov, Segodnia i davno (Moscow, 1978), p. 321; E. Dolmatovskii, Bylo: zapiski poeta (Moscow, 1982), p. 58 (also RGALI, f. 1814, op. 6, d. 170, l. 2).
40. Krasnaia zvezda, 28 August 1941, p. 1; 7 November 1941, p. 4; RGALI, f. 1814, op. 1, d. 993, l. 37; K. Simonov, Glazami cheloveka moego pokoleniia (Moscow, 1990), p. 87.
41. Simonov, 100 sutok voiny, pp. 550–51.
42. Ibid., pp. 17–21.
43. Merridale, Ivan’s War, pp. 134–8.
44. R. McNeal, Stalin: Man and Ruler (London, 1988), p. 241; R. Parker, Moscow Correspondent (London, 1949), pp. 21–2.
45. Pushkarev, Po dorogam voiny, p. 60; E. Seniavskaia, Chelovek na voine. Istorikopsikhologicheskie ocherki (Moscow, 1997), pp. 47–8; Lazarev, Konstantin Simonov, p. 68; Karaganov, Konstantin Simonov, p. 68; Simonov, Sobranie sochinenii, vol. 1, pp. 105–7; A. Werth, Russia at War 1941–1945 (London, 1964), p. 412. Werth is mistaken about the play’s final words. The phrase he quotes appears earlier in the play.
46. K. Simonov, Pis’ma o voine, 1943–1979 (Moscow, 1990), p. 110.
47. D. Samoilov, Podennye zapisi, 2 vols. (Moscow, 2002), vol. 1, p. 140; ‘Zaveshchanie zhivym (pis’ma s fronta)’, Sovetskaia Rossiia, 9 May 1991.
48. Seniavskaia, ‘Dukhovnyi oblik’, p. 49; V. Kondrat’ev, ‘Ne tol’ko o svoem pokolenii. Zametki pisatelia’, Kommunist, 1997, no. 7, p. 122.
49. S. Conze and B. Fieseler, ‘Soviet Women as Comrades-in-Arms: A Blind Spot in Soviet History’, in The People’s War, p. 212.
50. Interviews with Rebekka (Rita) Kogan, St Petersburg, June, November 2003.
51. A. Chuyanov, Stalingradskii dnevnik, 1941–1943 (Volgograd, 1968), p. 209; Konstantin Simonov rasskazyvaet (Moscow, 1981), p. 106.
52. RGASPI, f. 17, op. 125, d. 190, l. 16.
53. D. Glantz, The Siege of Leningrad, 1941–1944: 900 Days of Terror (London, 2001), pp. 75–6.
54. The classic statement of this influential theory is E. Shils and M. Janowitz, ‘Cohesion and Disintegration in the Wehrmacht in World War II’, Public Opinion Quarterly, 1948, no. 12, pp. 280–315.
55. E. Seniavskaia, Frontovoe pokolenie 1941–1945: istoriko-psikhologicheskoe issledovanie (Moscow, 1995), p. 86; same author, ‘Dukhovnyi oblik’, pp. 46–7; C. Merridale, Night of Stone: Death and Memory in Russia (London, 2000), p. 279.
56. R. Overy, Russia’s War (London, 1998), p. 197.
57. J. Erickson, The Road to Berlin (London, 1983), p. 40.
58. V. Zemskov, ‘Ukaz ot 26 Iunia 1940 g. (Eshche odna kruglaia data)’, Raduga, 1990, no. 6, p. 47.
59. MP, f. 4, op. 15, d. 2, ll. 7–9; d. 3, l. 2.
60. MP, f. 4, op. 11, d. 2, ll. 26–8.
61. E. Bacon, The Gulag at War: Stalin’s Forced Labour System in the Light of the Archives (London, 1994), p. 144; L. Borodkin and S. Ertz, ‘Coercion versus Motivation: Forced Labor in Norilsk’, in Paul Gregory and Valery Lazarev (eds.), The Economics of Forced Labor: The Soviet Gulag (Stanford, 2003), p. 78.
62. S. Ertz, ‘Building Norilsk’, in The Economics of Forced Labor, pp. 127–50; O vremeni, o Noril’ske, o sebe… Vospominaniia, 5 vols. (Moscow, 2001–6), vol. 3, p. 12; Borodkin and Ertz, ‘Coercion versus Motivation’, pp. 77, 86–8.
63. MM, f. 12, op. 18, d. 2, l. 27.
64. Interviews with Vasilina Dmitruk, Vera Pristupa, Maria Treimanis (née Fishchuk), Norilsk, July 2004.
65. Interview with Anna Darvina, Norilsk, July 2004.
66. Interview with Semyon Golovko, Norilsk, July 2004.
67. MM, f. 2, op. 5 (‘Khranit’ vechno!’, ms.).
68. RGALI, f. 3084, op. 1, d. 1390, ll. 1, 13; MSP, f. 3, op. 22, d. 2, ll. 19–21, 36–7; d. 4, ll. 15–16; interviews with Natalia Babailova, Severodvinsk, March and November 2005; interview with Nina Sazhnova, Saratov, November 2004; interview with Nina Levina, Krasnoiarsk, August 2005.
69. N. Mandelstam, Hope Abandoned (London, 1989), p. 252; B. Pasternak, Doctor Zhivago (London, 1958), p. 453; O. Ivinskaia, V plenu vremeni: gody c B. Pasternakom (Moscow, 1972), p. 96.
70. Kondrat’ev, ‘Ne tol’ko o svoem pokolenii’, p. 224.
71. M. Gefter, ‘Stalin umer vchera…’, in Inogo ne dano (Moscow, 1988), p. 305; VFA, A. Levidova, ‘Vospominaniia’, ms., p. 118.
72. H. Smith, The Russians (London, 1976), p. 369; V. Kondrat’ev, ‘Paradoks frontovoi nostal’gii’, Literaturnaia gazeta, 9 May 1990, p. 9.
73. Interview with Lazar Lazarev, Moscow, November 2003.
74. P. Blake and M. Hayward (eds.), Dissonant Voices in Soviet Literature (New York, 1962), pp. 164–7 (translated by Walter Vickery).
75. On the collapse of the Party’s ideological training centres in the war see R. Brody, Ideology and Political Mobilization: The Soviet Home Front During World War II (Pittsburgh, 1994), pp. 24–6.
76. Merridale, Ivan’s War, p. 141; Werth, Russia at War, p. 943; Pravda, 24 June 1944, p. 2; interview with Lazar Lazarev, Moscow, November 2003; MSP, f. 3, op. 30, d. 2, l. 23.
77. Smith, The Russians, p. 370.
78. MM, f. 12, op. 25, d. 2.
79. MSP, f. 3, op. 14, d. 2, ll. 46–53, 87–90; d. 3, ll. 27–33.
80. MP, f. 4, op. 11, d. 2, ll. 10, 34–7.
81. V. Pirozhkova, Poteriannoe pokolenie (St Petersburg, 1998), p. 154.
82. TsAODM, f. 1870, op. 3, d. 1, ll. 15–17; d. 3, ll. 33–4.
83. MM, f. 12, op. 21, d. 2, ll. 31–2.
84. E. Zubkova, Russia After the War: Hopes, Illusions and Disappointments, 1945–1957 (London, 1998), p. 17; ‘Voina, kotoruiu ne znali: iz dnevnika, prokommentirovannogo samym avtorom 45 let spustia’, Sovetskaia kul’tura, 5 May 1990, p. 4; interview with Lazar Lazarev, Moscow, November 2003.
85. M. Prishvin, Sobranie sochinenii, 8 vols. (Moscow, 1986), vol. 8, pp. 392, 435–6; VFA, A. Levidova, ‘Vospominaniia’, ms., p. 119; S. Gus’kov, Esli ostanus’ zhiv (Moscow, 1989), p. 215; interview with Lazar Lazarev, Moscow, November 2003.
86. GARF, f. 9041, op. 2, d. 202, l. 8; RGASPI, f. 558, op. 11, d. 868, l. 56; f. 17, op. 122, d. 122, ll. 27–30; Pravda, 11 September 1989.
87. GARF, f. 7253, op. 16, d. 79, l. 173; Merridale, Ivan’s War, pp. 292–3.
88. Seniavskaia, ‘Dukhovnyi oblik’, pp. 49–50.
89. T. Dunmore, Soviet Politics 1945–53 (London, 1984), p. 129; Zubkova, Russia After the War, p. 94; Bordiugov, ‘The Popular Mood’, pp. 66, 68.
90. MSP, f. 3, op. 4, d. 2, ll. 41–2, 46, 57–8.
91. MSP, f. 3, op. 16, d. 2, ll. 30–34, 74–8, 98.
92. Simonov, Sobranie sochinenii, vol. 9 .p. 639.
93. SLFA, M. Laskin, ‘Vospominaniia’,
ms., p. 72.
94. Pravda, 27 June 1945.
95. Chelovek v istorii. Rossiia–XX vek: sbornik rabot pobeditelei (Moscow, 2002), p. 293.
96. See Merridale, Ivan’s War, pp. 232–4.
97. Kondrat’ev, ‘Ne tol’ko o svoem pokolenii’, pp. 112–16; same author, ‘Paradoks frontovoi nostal’gii’.
98. MSP, f. 3, op. 29, d. 2, ll. 5–6.
99. MM, f. 1, op. 1, d. 1942; d. 1944; f. 12, op. 16, d. 2, ll. 12–15, 68–9.
100. MM, f. 1, op. 1, d. 1944.
101. MM, f. 1, op. 1, d. 1944; f. 12, op. 16, d. 2, ll. 27, 29, 69.
102. MM, f. 12, op. 16, d. 2, ll. 32–3.
103. MM, f. 12, op. 16, d. 2, ll. 34, 71–2, 85.
7: Ordinary Stalinists (1945–53)
1. MP, f. 4, op. 2, d. 2, ll. 64–89.
2. E. Zubkova, Russia After the War: Hopes, Illusions and Disappointments, 1945–1957 (London, 1998), pp. 20–21, 38; Liudskie poteri SSSR v period vtoroi mirovoi voiny: sbornik statei (St Petersburg, 2005), p. 130.
3. M. Heller and A. Nekrich, Utopia in Power: The History of the Soviet Union from 1917 to the Present (London, 1986), pp. 472–3; RGALI, f. 1814, op. 10, d. 387, l. 4; d. 389, l. 10.
4. Zubkova, Russia After the War, pp. 11, 40. A lower rate of mortality (1.5 million deaths) is given by M. Ellman, ‘The 1947 Soviet Famine and the Entitlement Approach to Famines’, Cambridge Journal of Economics, 24 (September 2000), p. 615.
5. MP, f. 4, op. 2, d. 2, ll. 13, 19–20, 24–6, 76–9.
6. RGASPI, f. 17, op. 117, d. 530, ll. 37–8.
7. ‘Iz suzhdenii sovetskikh liudei o poslevoennykh problemakh i o zhizni v SSSR’, Istoriia otechestva v dokumentakh, 1945–1993 (Moscow, 1995), p. 17.
8. I. Ehrenburg, The War, 1941–45 (London, 1964), p. 124; R. Service, A History of Twentieth-Century Russia (London, 1997), p. 299 (quotation altered for clarity); A. Mikoian, Tak bylo: razmyshleniia o minuvshem (Moscow, 1999), pp. 513–14.
9. Interview with Marianna Gordon, St Petersburg, October 2003.
10. Interview with Valentina Aleksandrova, St Petersburg, December 2003.
11. RGASPI, f. 17, op. 125, d. 424, ll. 58–71. On these groups see J. Fürst, ‘Prisoners of the Self? Political Opposition Groups in Late Stalinism’, Europe-Asia Studies, vol. 54, no. 3 (2002), pp. 353–75; H. Kuromiya, “‘Political Youth Opposition in Late Stalinism”: Evidence and Conjecture’, Europe-Asia Studies, vol. 55, no. 4 (2003), pp. 631–8.
12. MSP, f. 3, op. 20, d. 2, ll. 53, 59.
13. MSP, f. 3, op. 47, d. 2, ll. 21, 31, 35, 38, 55.
14. See N. Tumarkin, The Living and the Dead: The Rise and Fall of the Cult of World War II in Russia (New York, 1994), p. 104; L. Lazarev, Pamiat’ trudnoi godiny. Velikaia otechestvennaia voina v russkoi literature (Moscow, 2000), pp. 61–3.
15. Pravda, 10 February 1946; A. Applebaum, Gulag: A History of the Soviet Camps (London, 2003), p. 415.
16. R. Overy, Russia’s War (London, 1997), pp. 304–7.
17. A. Danilov and A. Pyzhikov, Rozhdenie sverkhderzhavy: SSSR v pervye poslevoennye gody (Moscow, 2001), p. 108.
18. GARF, f. 9401, op. 2, d. 234, ll. 148, 153; d. 199, l. 392; S. Fitzpatrick, ‘Postwar Soviet Society: The “Return to Normalcy”, 1945–1953’, in S. Linz (ed.), The Impact of World War II on the Soviet Union (Totowa, 1985), pp. 143–5.
19. P. Gregory, ‘An Introduction to the Economics of the Gulag’, in P. Gregory and V. Lazarev (eds.), The Economics of Forced Labor: The Soviet Gulag (Stanford, 2003), pp. 14, 16; G. Alexopoulos, ‘Amnesty 1945: The Revolving Door of Stalin’s Gulag’, Slavic Review, vol. 64, no. 2 (Summer 2005), p. 274; Y. Gorlizki and O. Khlevniuk, Cold Peace: Stalin and the Soviet Ruling Circle, 1945–1953 (Oxford, 2004), pp. 130–31, 268–71.
20. For a good example of a family reunited in Norilsk see the Kuznetsova-Babailova archive in MSP, f. 3, op. 22, dd. 2–5.
21. MM, f. 12, op. 20, d. 2.
22. MSP, f. 3, op. 8, d. 2.
23. L. Borodkin and S. Ertz, ‘Coercion versus Motivation: Forced Labor in Norilsk’, in Gregory and Lazarev (eds.), The Economics of Forced Labor, pp. 102–3.
24. V. Dunham, In Stalin’s Time: Middle-Class Values in Soviet Fiction (New York, 1976).
25. N. DeWitt, Education and Professional Employment in the USSR (Washington, 1961), pp. 606–7, 638–9.
26. A. Inkeles and R. Bauer, The Soviet Citizen: Daily Life in a Totalitarian Society (Cambridge, Mass. 1959), pp. 289, 326–7.
27. C. Miłosz, The Captive Mind (London, 1953), pp. 55, 57.
28. Interviews with Irina Aleksandrova, St Petersburg, May, November 2003.
29. MSP, f. 3, op. 37, d. 2, ll. 44–5.
30. MFA, L. Makhnach, ‘Oskolki bylogo s vysoty nastoiashchego’, ms., p. 76.
31. MSP, f. 3, op. 34, d. 2, l. 4. See also MM, f. 12, op. 32, d. 2, ll. 77–8.
32. MP, f. 4, op. 2, d. 2, ll. 32–3.
33. MP, f. 4, op. 13, d. 2, ll. 37–8, 39, 42–3, 56.
34. Interviews with Iurii Streletsky, St Petersburg, May 2003, February 2004.
35. PFA, ‘Vospominaniia’, ms., pp. 17, 22–4; interviews with Tatiana Elagina, Moscow, May, October 2003 (name changed on the request of the informant).
36. MP, f. 4, op. 7, d. 2, ll. 3, 7, 11–12, 26, 28, 39–40.
37. RGALI, f. 1814, op. 10, d. 360, l. 45; K. Simonov, Glazami cheloveka moego pokoleniia (Moscow, 1990), p. 82; A. Karaganov, Konstantin Simonov vblizi i na rasstoianii (Moscow 1987), p. 103.
38. RGALI, f. 1814, op. 10, d. 346.
39. K. Simonov, Segodnia i davno (Moscow, 1978), pp. 143–4; N. Pushnova, Valentina Serova (Moscow, 2003), pp. 215–16.
40. K. Chukovskii, Dnevnik, 1901–1969, 2 vols. (Moscow, 2003), vol. 2, p. 210; RGALI, f. 631, op. 15, d. 1004, l. 150; Simonov, Glazami cheloveka moego pokoleniia, p. 116.
41. Interview with Aleksei Simonov, Moscow, November 2003; interview with Marina Babak, Moscow, November 2003.
42. RGALI, f. 1814, op. 10, d. 343, l. 1; N. Bianki, K. Simonov i A. Tvardovskii v ‘Novom mire’ (Moscow, 1999), p. 7; L. Fink, Konstantin Simonov (Moscow, 1979), pp. 220, 235, 251, 274.
43. L. Chukovskaia, Sochineniia v 2 tomakh (Moscow, 2000), vol. 2, pp. 182, 186, 216. Simonov was accused of a similarly dictatorial manner as the editor of Literaturnaia gazeta (see RGASPI, f. 558, op. 11, d. 878, l. 55).
44. RGALI, f. 1814, op. 9, d. 229, ll. 16, 20; Bianki, K. Simonov i A. Tvardovskii v ‘Novom Mire’, p. 16; B. Pankin, Chetyre Ia Konstantina Simonova (Moscow, 1999), pp. 19, 23, 35–5; interview with Aleksei Simonov, Moscow, November 2003; interview with Marina Babak, Moscow, November 2003.
45. RGALI, f. 1814, op. 9, d. 2590, ll. 1, 2. On Portugalov in Kolyma see the touching reminiscences about him by Varlam Shalamov in RGALI, f. 2596, op. 2, d. 133, ll. 1–10.
46. Karaganov, Konstantin Simonov, p. 136. On Smeliakov: Sluzhili dva tovarishcha: kniga o zhizni kinodramaturgov Dunskogo i Frida (Moscow, 2002), pp. 592–5.
47. RGALI, f. 1814, op. 1, d. 454, ll. 43, 45; d. 643, ll. 1–2; op. 9, d. 1812, l. 4.
48. I. Berlin, ‘Meetings with Russian Writers in 1945 and 1956’, in Personal Impressions (Oxford, 1982), pp. 160–61; N. Mandelstam, Hope Abandoned (London, 1989), p. 375.
49. G. Carleton, The Politics of Reception: Critical Constructions of Mikhail Zoshchenko (Evanston, 1998), pp. 231–2.
50. ‘Doklad t. Zhdanova o zhurnalakh Zvezda i Leningrad’, Novyi mir, 1946, no. 9, pp. iv–xix.
51. Simonov, Glazami cheloveka moego pokoleniia, pp. 104–7; RGASPI, f. 17, op. 132, d. 229, l. 21.
52. Simonov, Segodnia i davno, pp. 337–8; A. Borshchagovskii, Zapiski balovnia sud’by (Moscow, 1991), p. 235.
53. RGALI, f. 1814, op. 9, d. 331, ll. 1–2; Simonov, Glazami cheloveka moego pokoleniia, pp. 118–20, 137, 141; interview with Lazar Lazarev, Moscow, November 2003.
54. SLFA, ‘K.M.’, two-part film on DVD, comments by Benedikt Sarnov in Part 1, at twenty-six minutes; interview with Lazar Lazarev, Moscow, November 2003.
55. B. Schwarz, Music and Musical Life in Soviet Russia, 1917–1970 (London, 1972), pp. 208, 218; Gorlizki and Khlevniuk, Cold Peace, pp. 35–8; Zubkova, Russia After the War, pp. 119–23.
56. H. Salisbury, American in Russia (New York, 1955), pp. 16–20, 38; G. Ivanova, ‘Poslevoennye repressii i Gulag’, in Stalin i kholodnaia voina (Moscow, 1998), p. 255.
57. J. Brent and V. Naukov, Stalin’s Last Crime: The Doctors’ Plot (London, 2003), p. 96.
58. ‘Evreiskii antifashistskii komitet’, Izvestiia TsK KPSS, 1989, no. 12, p. 40; Reabilitatsiia: politicheskie protsessy 30–50-kh godov (Moscow, 1991), p. 326.
59. Cited in A. Weiner, Making Sense of War: The Second World War and the Fate of the Bolshevik Revolution (Princeton, 2001), p. 195.
60. RGALI, f. 1814, op. 9, d. 2645, ll. 3–4, 9, 18; Borshchagovskii, Zapiski balovnia sud’by, pp. 3, 77, 94; G. Kostyrchenko, Tainaia politika Stalina. Vlast’ i antisemitizm (Moscow, 2001), pp. 319 ff.
61. A. Gerasimov, ‘Za sovetskii patriotism v iskusstve’, Pravda, 10 February 1949; N. Gribachev, ‘Protiv kosmopolitizma i formalizma v poezii’, Pravda, 16 February 1949; T. Khrennikov, ‘Burzhuaznye kosmopolity v muzykal’noi kritike’, Kul’tura i zhizn’, 20 February 1949; ‘Do kontsa razoblachit’ kosmopolitov-antipatriotov’, Pravda, 26–27 February 1949; L.Bol’shakov, ‘Razgromit’ burzhuaznyi kosmopolitizm v kinoiskusstve’, Pravda, 3 March 1949; etc.
62. Kostyrchenko, Tainaia politika Stalina, pp. 334–5; Borshchagovskii, Zapiski balovnia sud’by, pp. 185, 188–91; RGASPI, f. 83, op. 1, d. 5, ll. 92–5.
63. RGASPI, f. 17, op. 132, d. 237, ll. 13–15. See also RGASPI, f. 77, op. 4, d. 73, ll. 7–11; Bianki, K. Simonov i A. Tvardovskii v ‘Novom Mire’, p. 19.
64. RGASPI, f. 17, op. 118, d. 229, l. 17.
65. N. Tipot (Sokolova), ‘Dnevnik’, private archive. On Sofronov and Simonov as rivals to succeed Fadeyev see the thoughts of Borshchagovsky in A. Borshchagovskii, Pustotelyi monolit (Moscow, 2002), pp. 133–4.
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