19. Pushnova, Valentina Serova, p. 322; RGALI, f. 1814, op. 9, d. 775, l. 1.
20. Interview with Maria Simonova, Moscow, March 2004; RGALI, f. 1814, op. 9, d. 775, l. 1.
21. RGALI, f. 1814, op. 9, d. 1770, l. 18; interview with Aleksei Simonov, Moscow, September 2003.
22. SLFA, Yevgeniia Laskina to Aleksei Simonov, 28 August 1957; Mark Laskin, ‘Vospominaniia’, ts., p. 15; RGALI, f. 1814, op. 10 .d. 342, l. 20; interview with Fania Laskina, Moscow, July 2004; A. Simonov, Chastnaia kollektsiia (Nizhny Novgorod, 1999), pp. 42, 44–5, 148.
23. RGALI, f. 1814, op. 9, d. 2199, l. 2.
24. SLFA, Aleksei Simonov to Yevgeniia Laskina, 19 August 1956; Aleksei Simonov to Konstantin Simonov, 24 October 1956; Konstantin to Aleksei Simonov, 31 August 1956.
25. SLFA, Yevgeniia Laskina to Aleksei Simonov, 26 September 1956; Simonov, Chastnaia kollektsiia, p. 67; Aleksei to Konstantin Simonov, 7 February 1957.
26. Interview with Aleksei Simonov, Moscow, November 2003; SLFA, Aleksei Simonov, Diary, 23 December 1956; Aleksei Simonov to Vladimir Dudintsev, 13 December 1956; RGALI, f. 1814, op. 9, d. 1770, ll. 15–17, 22.
27. K. Simonov, Glazami cheloveka moego pokoleniia (Moscow, 1990), p. 12; interview with Lazar Lazarev, Moscow, November 2003; RGALI, f. 1814, op. 2, d. 127, ll. 2–3, 8.
28. RGALI, f. 1814, op. 9, d. 1770, l. 12.
29. RGALI, f. 1814, op. 9, d. 1770, l. 13.
30. RGALI, f. 1814, op. 6, d. 170, l. 17.
31. V. Kondrat’ev, ‘Ne tol’ko o svoem pokolenii. Zametki pisatelia’, Kommunist, 1997, no. 7, p. 122.
32. Interview with Marina Babak, Moscow, November 2003.
33. K. Simonov, Sto sutok voiny (Smolensk, 1999); same author, Raznye dni voiny: dnevnik pisatelia, 2 vols. (Moscow, 1977–8).
34. RGALI, f. 1814, op. 9, d. 11, ll. 1–21; op. 8, d. 58, l. 98.
35. RGALI, f. 1814, op. 9, dd. 2590, 681, 1857.
36. Simonov, Chastnaia kollektsiia, pp. 147–55. The cuts, which amounted to sixty typed pages, immediately appeared in samizdat, and were included in foreign editions of the novel from 1969. The complete version of the novel first came out in the Soviet Union in 1973. See R. Pevear’s ‘Introduction’, and his notes on the text in his translation of M. Bulgakov, The Master and Margarita (London, 1997), pp. vii–xix.
37. Interviews with Aleksei Simonov, Moscow, September, November 2003, February 2004.
38. RGALI, f. 1814, op. 10, d. 376, ll. 20–21; Konstantin Simonov v vospominaniiakh sovremennikov (Moscow, 1984), p. 291; N. Bianki, K. Simonov i A. Tvardovskii v ‘Novom Mire’ (Moscow, 1999), pp. 32–3.
39. L. Lazarev, Shestoi etazh: kniga vospominaniia (Moscow, 1999), pp. 208, 210; interview with Lazar Lazarev, Moscow, November 2003; Simonov, Sto sutok voiny, pp. 550–54; RGALI, f. 1814, op. 9, d. 5, l. 63; op. 9, d. 19 (‘Vospominaniia o kampanii po bor’be s kosmopolitizmom’, ts., 1976).
40. K. Simonov and I. Ehrenburg, V odnoi gazete: reportazhi i stati 1941–1945 (Moscow, 1979); Lazarev, Shestoi etazh, pp. 201–2.
41. A. Solzhenitsyn, The Oak and the Calf: Sketches of Literary Life in the Soviet Union (London, 1980), p. 299.
42. Interview with Viktor Erofeev, Moscow, November 2003; interview with Andrei Erofeev, Moscow, April 2004; interview with Nina Arkhipova, Moscow, November 2003; D. Gillespie, ‘Metropol”, The Literary Encyclopedia, 19 November 2005.
43. Simonov, Glazami cheloveka moego pokoleniia, pp. 7–8.
44. Ibid. Fragments of the memoirs were first published in the journal Znamia in 1988, no. 3, pp. 3–66; no. 4, pp. 49–121; no. 5, pp. 69–96.
45. See e.g. A. Mikoian, Tak bylo: razmyshleniia o minuvshem (Moscow, 1999), p. 589 (‘Of course we bear a great responsibility. But we must understand the circumstances in which we worked. There was a lot we did not know, we believed, but in any case there was simply nothing we could change.’)
46. Lev Razgon, True Stories (London, 1997), pp. 21–34.
47. Interview with Ivan Korchagin, Akmolinsk, September 1988.
48. IFA, ‘Kommentarii k pis’mam’, ts., 1988; Mikhail Iusipenko to M. Zelder, 29 December 1988; Mikhail Iusipenko to Sergei Barinov, 18 August 1988; interview with Oksana Kozmina, Moscow, 1988.
49. MM, f. 1, op. 2; f. 2, op. 5; f. 12, op. 9, dd. 2, 3.
50. On the relationship between memory and narrative see V. Skultans, The Testimony of Lives: Narrative and Memory in Post-Soviet Latvia (London, 1998).
51. Alexander Dolgun’s Story: An American in the Gulag (New York, 1975), p. 4.
52. I. Sherbakova, ‘The Gulag in Memory’, in L. Passerini (ed.), International Yearbook of Oral History and Life Stories, vol. 1: Memory and Totalitarianism (Oxford, 1992), pp. 112–13 (translation slightly altered for clarity).
53. See e.g. MSP, f. 3, op. 42, d. 3, ll. 1–24.
54. M. McAuley, Soviet Politics 1917–1991 (Oxford, 1992), pp. 56–7.
55. On the Gulag memoir as a literary genre see Leona Toker, Return from the Archipelago: Narratives of Gulag Survivors (Bloomington, 2000).
56. E. Ginzburg, Into the Whirlwind (London, 1968); Within the Whirlwind (London, 1981).
57. C. Merridale, Ivan’s War: The Red Army 1939–1945 (London, 2005), p. 334; A. Applebaum, ‘The Real Patriotic War’, New York Review of Books, vol. 53, no. 6 (6 April 2006), pp. 16, 18.
58. Ginzburg, Within the Whirlwind, p. 201.
59. O vremeni, o Noril’ske, o sebe: vospominaniia, 5 vols. (Moscow, 2001–4); A. Macqueen, ‘Survivors’, Granta, 64 (Winter 1998), p. 39.
60. Interview with Vasily Romashkin, Norilsk, July 2004.
61. Interview with Olga Iaskina, Norilsk, July 2004. This paragraph is based on interviews with over fifty people in Norilsk during July 2004. See the List of Interviews in Sources.
62. Moscow News, 4 March 2005.
63. Mikhail Baitalsky, Notebooks for the Grandchildren: Recollections of a Trotskyist Who Survived the Stalin Terror (New Jersey, 1995), pp. 97–8.
64. MP, f. 4, op. 13, d. 2, l. 18.
65. MP, f. 4, op. 24, d. 2, ll. 64–7.
66. MP, f. 4, op. 22, d. 2, ll. 67–71.
67. On this phenomenon in general see H. Krystal, Massive Psychic Trauma (New York, 1968); D. Wardl, Memorial Candles: Children of the Holocaust, London, 1992; N. Burchardt, ‘Transgenerational Transmission in the Families of Holocaust Survivors in England’, in D. Bertaux and P. Thompson (eds.), International Yearbook of Oral History and Life Stories, vol. 2: Between Generations: Family Models, Myths and Memories (Oxford, 1993), pp. 121–37. For details of an interesting pilot study of these issues carried out by the psychologist Marina Gulina among children brought up by survivors of the siege of Leningrad, see ‘Malen’kii prints v blokadnom Leningrade: psikhoanaliticheskoe issledovanie’, Sankt-Peterburgskii Universitet, no. 9 (3698), 5 May 2005, pp. 32–5.
68. MSP, f. 3, op. 11, d. 1, ll. 1–2; d. 2, ll. 53–60, 74–84.
69. MSP, f. 3, op. 37, d. 2, l. 63; interview with Vladimir Korsakov, St Petersburg, May, October 2003.
70. Interviews with Aleksei Iurasovsky, Moscow, July 2004, October 2005.
71. MP, f. 4, op. 24, d. 2, ll. 36–7, 44–7; MSP, f. 3, op. 16, d. 2, l. 91.
72. MP, f. 4, op. 26, d. 2, ll. 6–8; op. 3, d. 2, l. 37.
73. MP, f. 12, op. 4, d. 2, ll. 75–6.
74. MP, f. 12, op. 16, d. 2, l. 23; op. 17, d. 2, l. 52.
75. MP, f. 12, op. 17, d. 2, ll. 52–3.
76. B. Slutskii, Sud’ba. Stikhi raznykh let (Moscow, 1990), p. 40.
77. See e.g. MP, f. 4, op. 5, d. 2, l. 20; op. 24, d. 2, ll. 70–73. Some oral historians have argued that under Vladimir Putin’s authoritarian government, after 2000, the Russians became ‘socialized into reticence’, as they had been in the Soviet period, and that, compared to the early 1990s, they were ‘reluctant to give candid interviews’ (D. Bertaux, P. Thompson and A. Rotkirch (eds.), On Living Through Soviet Russia (London, 2004), pp. 8–9).
78. MSP, f. 3, op. 14, d. 3, ll. 52–4.
79. MSP, f.
3, op. 14, d. 2, ll. 41–5, 59–64, 76, 85–9, 93, 119; d. 3, ll. 34, 39–40, 45–6. Antonia died in December 2006.
Sources
Archives
Public archives
AFSBTO
Archive of the Federal Security Service of Tambov Oblast, Tambov
AFSBVO
Archive of the Federal Security Service of Vologda Oblast, Vologda
AMILO
Archive of the Moscow Historical-Literary Society (‘Vozvrashchenie’)
ARAN
Archive of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow
GAOO
State Archive of Orel Oblast, Orel
GAPO
State Archive of Perm Oblast, Perm
GARF
State Archive of the Russian Federation, Moscow
GARK
State Archive of the Komi Republic, Syktyvkar
GASO
State Archive of Sverdlovsk Oblast, Yekaterinburg
GAVO
State Archive of Vologda Oblast, Vologda
GMPIR
State Museum of Political History of Russia, St Petersburg
GOPAPO
State Socio-Political Archive of Perm Oblast, Perm
HP
Harvard Project (‘Project on the Soviet Social System’), Harvard University, USA
IISH
International Institute of Social History, Amsterdam
IRL RAN
Institute of Russian Literature, Russian Academy of Sciences (‘Pushkin House’), St Petersburg
MM*
Archive of the Memorial Society, Moscow
MP*
Archive of the Memorial Society, Perm
MSP*
Archive of the Memorial Society, St Petersburg
OR RNB
Manuscripts Department, Russian National Library, St Petersburg
RGAE
Russian State Archive of the Economy, Moscow
RGAKFD
Russian State Archive of Documentary Films and Photographs, Krasnogorsk
RGALI
Russian State Archive of Literature and Art, Moscow
RGASPI
Russian State Archive of Social and Political History, Moscow
SPbF
ARAN
St Petersburg Filial of the Archive of the Russian Academy of Sciences
SSEES
School of Slavonic and East European Studies, University of London
TsAFSB
Central Archive of the Federal Security Service, Moscow
TsAODM
Central Archive of Social Movements of Moscow
TsDNA
Centre of Documents, ‘the People’s Archive’, Moscow
TsGAIPD
Central State Archive of Historical Political Documents, Moscow
TsGASP
Central State Archive of St Petersburg
TsIAM
Central Historical Archive of Moscow
TsKhDMO
Centre for the Preservation of Documents of Youth Organizations, Moscow
TsMAMLS
Central Moscow Archive-Museum of Personal Collections
Private archives
AFA
Alekseyeva Family Archive, Moscow
GFA
Golovnia Family Archive, Moscow
IFA
Iusipenko Family Archive, Akmolinsk, Kazakhstan
LFA
Levitina Family Archive, St Petersburg
MFA
Makhnach Family Archive, Moscow
MIFA
Mikheladze Family Archive, Tbilisi, Georgia
MUFA
Muratov Family Archive, Moscow
PFA
Pavlukhina Family Archive, St Petersburg
RFA
Ramensky Family Archive, Strugi Krasnye
SFA
Slavin Family Archive, Cologne, Germany
SLFA
Simonov-Laskin Family Archive, Moscow
VFA
Vittenburg Family Archive, St Petersburg
VOFA
Voitinsky Family Archive, St Petersburg
List of Interviews
Adasinskaia, Galina Antonovna (St Petersburg)
Akkuratnova, Maia Pavlovna (Moscow)
Aksyonova, Iraida Petrovna (Usole)
Aleksandrova, Irina Mikhailovna (St Petersburg)
Aleksandrova, Valentina Lvovna (St Petersburg)
Aliavdina, Veronika Anatolevna (St Petersburg)
Alkaeva, Raifa Izmagilovna (Krasnokamsk)
Anastaseva, Margarita Viktorovna (Moscow)
Andreyev, Oleg Grigorevich (St Petersburg)
Arapov, Aleksandr Pavlovich (St Petersburg)
Arkhipova, Nina Nikolaeva (Moscow)
Atapov, Sergei Mikhailovich (Tambov)
Avdasheva, Ninel Nikolaevna (St Petersburg)
Babaeva, Klavdiia Mikhailovna (Moscow)
Babailova, Natalia Borisovna (Severodvinsk)
Babak, Marina Mikhailovna (Moscow)
Babikova, Yevgeniia Spiridonovna (Norilsk)
Babina, Rada Lvovna (Moscow)
Babitskaia, Vlada Alekseyevna (Moscow)
Babushkina, Lydia Vasilevna (Perm)
Badaeva, Valentina Fyodorovna (Perm)
Badiaeva, Galina Ivanovna (Perm)
Baigulova, Elena Alekseyevna (Moscow)
Balandin, Grigorii Pavlovich (Perm)
Baranenko, Nadezhda Pavlovna (Perm)
Barinov, Sergei Mikhailovich (Akmolinsk)
Barkovskaia, Marianna Iosifovna (Izobilnoe, Stavropol district)
Batin, Pyotr Yefimovich (Usole)
Batishcheva, Maria Karlovna (Norilsk)
Batrakova, Nina Dmitrevna (Perm)
Bazilevskaia, Valentina Borisovna (Voronezh)
Bazilevskaia, Vladilena Borisovna (Moscow)
Bekker, Valentin Vladimirovich (St Petersburg)
Belikova, Zinaida Vasilevna (St Petersburg)
Beloborodov, Nikolai Nikolaevich (Perm)
Belousov, Arkadii Sergeyevich (Penza)
Belova, Anna Pavlovna (Krasnokamsk)
Beneta, Svetlana Anatolevna (Norilsk)
Blagoveshchensky, Andrei Borisovich (Moscow)
Bletsko, Tatiana Nikolaevna (St Petersburg)
Blium, Arlen Viktorovich (St Petersburg)
Blium, Igor Vsevolodovich (St Petersburg)
Bogdanov, Sergei Nikolaevich (St Petersburg)
Bogdanova, Natalia Borisovna (Moscow)
Bolchis, Tatiana Vasilevna (St Petersburg)
Bonner, Elena Georgievna (Boston, USA)
Borodina, Valentina Semyonovna (Norilsk)
Borozna, Mikhail Danilovich (Orel)
Borshchagovsky, Aleksandr Mikhailovich (Moscow)
Bronshtein, Svetlana Aleksandrovna (Moscow)
Bronshtein, Yekaterina Mikhailovna (St Petersburg)
Budkevich, Maria Stanislavovna (St Petersburg)
Bulat, Inessa Pavlovna (St Petersburg)
Burylovna, Zoia Pavlovna (Perm)
Bushueva, Angelina Vladimirovna (Perm)
Chechik, Elizaveta Natanovna (Moscow)
Cherepanova, Praskovia Iakimovna (Perm)
Cherkasova, Karina Leonidovna (Moscow)
Cherkasskaia, Bella Martynovna (St Petersburg)
Cherkesov, Oleg Vsevolodovich (St Petersburg)
Cherkesova, Svetlana Vsevolodovna (St Petersburg)
Cherniaev, Boris Dmitrievich (Tambov)
Cherniaeva, Dalita Artyomovna (Krasnokamsk)
Chesnokov, Vladimir Ivanovich (St Petersburg)
Chulkova, Antonina Alekseyevna (Perm)
Chuprun, Gerta Yevgenevna (Moscow)
Dadzis, Lydia Ianovna (St Petersburg)
Danilenko, Irina Aleksandrovna (Norilsk)
Danilov, Viktor Petrovich (Moscow)
Danilova, Natalia Stepanovna (Moscow)
Danilovich, Liia Iakovlevna (Perm)
Darvina, Anna Andreyevna (Norilsk)
Davydova, Inna Pavlovna (Voronezh)
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Delibash, Elizaveta Aleksandrovna (St Petersburg)
Dmitrenko, Irina Aleksandrovna (Norilsk)
Dmitruk, Stepan Kuzmich (Norilsk)
Dmitruk, Vasilina Korneyevna (Norilsk)
Dobrovolskaia, Ella Dmitrievna (Moscow)
Dombrovskaia, Elena Petrovna (Moscow)
Drozdov, Boris Pavlovich (Moscow)
Dudareva, Galina Vasilevna (St Petersburg)
Eisenberg, Vera Ignatevna (Kolpino)
Eliashova, Liudmila Leonidovna (St Petersburg)
Eliashova, Marksena Leonidovna (St Petersburg)
Ender, Zoia Borisovna (Rome, Italy)
Epshtein, Mark Borisovich (St Petersburg)
Erofeev, Andrei Vladimirovich (Moscow)
Erofeev, Viktor Vladimirovich (Moscow)
Feofilaktova, Nina Ivanovna (St Petersburg)
Filimonova, Larisa Fyodorovna (St Petersburg)
Filippova, Kira Ivanovna (St Petersburg)
Fomin, Vladimir Leonidovich (St Petersburg)
Fursei, Georgii Nikolaevich (St Petersburg)
Gabaeva, Natalia Sergeyevna (St Petersburg)
Galchinskaia, Liudmila Mikhailovna (St Petersburg)
Galitsky, Pavel Kalinikovich (St Petersburg)
Garmash, Larisa Danilovna (Moscow)
Garmash, Vitalii Ivanovich (Moscow)
Gavrilov, Boris Nikolaevich (St Petersburg)
Genishta, Vladimir Sergeyevich (Novosibirsk)
Genishta, Yevgeny Sergeyevich (Moscow)
Gernet, Galina Yevgenevna (St Petersburg)
Glazova, Margarita Nikolaevna (St Petersburg)
Godes, Anri Mikhailovich (St Petersburg)
Goldevskaia, Yekaterina Ivanovna (St Petersburg)
Goldobin, Andrei Borisovich (St Petersburg)
Golovanova, Genrietta Ivanovna (Severodvinsk)
Golovko, Semyon Georgievich (Norilsk)
Golovnia, Oksana Anatolevna (Moscow)
The Whisperers Page 88